For example in his General Theory of Relativity he derived the causality of gravity in terms of a curvature in the geometry of space and time.

One can understand how in terms of the physical image of a marble on a curved surface of a rubber diaphragm.  The marble follows a circular pattern around the deformity in its surface. Similarly planets revolve around the sun because they follow a curved path in the deformed “surface” of space-time.

In other words he was able to integrate the physicality of gravity into our consciousness in terms of a physical image based on observing a marble moving on a curved surface.

However he was unable to do the same for electrical forces as was documented by the American Institute of Physics.

“From before 1920 until his death in 1955, Einstein struggled to find laws of physics far more general than any known before. In his theory of relativity, the force of gravity had become an expression of the geometry of space and time. The other forces in nature, above all the force of electromagnetism, had not been described in such terms. But it seemed likely to Einstein that electromagnetism and gravity could both be explained as aspects of some broader mathematical structure. The quest for such an explanation — for a “unified field” theory that would unite electromagnetism and gravity, space and time, all together — occupied more of Einsteinâ€s years than any other activity.

In other words because time is only observed to move in one direction forward, a space-time universe can only support a force that cause movement in one direction towards an object such as gravity. 

However, it would be easier to form a physical image of electrical forces if one converts or transposes Einstein’s space-time universe to one of only four *spatial* dimensions the because of the bidirectional symmetry of the spatial dimension.

In other words because time is only observed to move in one direction forward, a space-time universe can only support a force that cause movement in one direction towards an object such as gravity while one made up four *spatial* dimensions could support the towards and away or bi-directional movement associated with electromagnetism. Therefore because of the bidirectional symmetry of a spatial dimension it would be easier to form a physical image of electrical forces if one converts or transposes Einstein’s space-time universe to one of only four *spatial* dimensions.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used the velocity of light and the equation E=mc^2 to define geometric properties of forces in space-time environment because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his four dimensional space-time universe to a unit of space in a universe consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions.   Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by mathematically defining the geometric properties of time in his space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining it in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einsteinâ€s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with gravitational forces in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases for assuming, as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy including gravitational and electromagnetism can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This allows one to form a physical image of electrical force as was done in the article “What is electromagnetism?“ Sept, 27 2007 in terms of the differential force caused by the “peaks” and “toughs” of a energy wave moving on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed it is possible to derive the electrical properties of electromagnetism by extrapolating the laws of Classical Wave Mechanics in a three-dimensional environment to a wave moving on a “surface” of three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

A wave on the two-dimensional surface of water causes a point on that surface to be become displaced or rise above or below the equilibrium point that existed before the wave was present.  A force will be developed by the differential displacement of the surfaces, which will result in the elevated and depressed portions of the water moving towards or become “attracted” to each other and the surface of the water.

Similarly a energy wave on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension would cause a point on that “surface” to become displaced or rise above and below the equilibrium point that existed before the wave was present.

Therefore, classical wave mechanics, if extrapolated  to four *spatial* dimensions tells us a force will be developed by the differential displacements caused by a energy wave moving on a “surface” of three-dimensional space with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension that will result in its elevated and depressed portions moving towards or become “attracted” to each other.

This defines the causality of the attractive forces of unlike charges associated with the electromagnetic wave component of a photon in terms of a force developed by a differential displacement of a point on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However, it also provides a classical mechanism for understanding why similar charges repel each other because observations of water show that there is a direct relationship between the magnitudes of a displacement in its surface to the magnitude of the force resisting that displacement.

Similarly the magnitude of a displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by two similar charges will be greater than that caused by a single one.  Therefore, similar charges will repel each other because the magnitude of the force resisting the displacement will be greater for two charges than it would be for a single charge.

One can define the causality of electrical component of electromagnetic energy in terms of the energy associated with its “peaks” and “troughs” that is directed perpendicular to its velocity vector while its magnetic component would be associated with the horizontal force developed by that perpendicular displacement because classical Mechanics tells us a horizontal force will be developed by that displacement which will always be 90 degrees out of phase with it.  This force is called magnetism.

This is analogous to how the vertical force pushing up of on mountain also generates a horizontal force, which pulls matter horizontally towards the apex of that displacement.

This shows how one can define a physician image for the causality electromagnetic forces in terms of the existence of four spatial dimensions.

Einstein was unable to accomplish this in terms of four-dimensional space-time because as mentioned earlier time is only observe to move in one direction forwards and therefore could not support the bi-directional component of electromagnetic forces.

However this also shows that Einstein was right, as was mentioned above in the  American Institute of Physics article that electromagnetism and gravity can both be explained as aspects of some broader mathematical structure because as was shown above using only valid mathematical rules one can transform his space-time equations to four *spatial* dimensions thereby allowing one to form a clear physical image explaining the causality electromagnetic forces.

It should be remember that Einstein’s genius allows us to choose whether to create physical images of an unseen “reality” in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in choose terms of energy/mass and the constant velocity of light.

Later Jeff

Copyright 2018 Jeffrey O’Callaghan

The post Electromagnetism: a new perspective Einstein would have like. appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

For example Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity is based on the relative simple concept of a curvature in a space-time metric.  Granted the math required to determine the gravitational forces on an object can be very complicated and not easy for many to understand however understanding or visualizing how a curvature in space-time can cause objects to accelerate is relative easy to do.  This is because one can form a relatively simple physical image of it based on how objects such as a ball is accelerated on a curved two dimensional surface on the earth and them extrapolating that to a curvature in a space-time metric. 

However, even though in 1917, he added a cosmological constant to his equations which some fell would provide one of simplest mathematical explanations for Dark energy it is difficult for many to conceptually integrate it with the physical imagery that is provided by his theory. 

Yet, this may be due to the fact that Einstein chose to define gravity in terms of time or a space-time dimension while the accelerative forces of Dark Energy are related to the spatial properties of an expanding universe.

In other words, as Ockham pointed out the best way to understand it would be to eliminate time or the space-time dimension from his general theory of gravity and replace it with spatial one because as was just mentioned our universe is not expanding through time dimension therefore it is not necessary to our understanding of its spatial expansion.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this he derived the physical properties of a gravity in a space-time environment in terms mass and energy and the constant velocity of light because that  provided a method of converting a unit of time in a space-time environment with unit of space in four *spatial* dimensions.   Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.
This fact that one can use Einstein’s theories to qualitatively and quantitatively derive the spatial properties of energy in a space-time universe in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one the bases of assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

In other words one can not only use Einstein’s equations to quantitatively and qualitatively derive how energy interacts with time in a space-time dimension but also how it would interact with its spatial equivalent in four spatial dimensions.

We know from the study of thermodynamics that energy flows from areas of high to ones with low density very similar to how water flows form an elevated or “high density” point to a lower one.

For example if the walls of an above ground pool filled with water collapse the elevated two-dimensional surface of the water will flow or expand and accelerate outward towards the three-dimensional environment sounding it.

Yet we know from observations of the cosmic background radiation that presently our three-dimensional universe has an average energy component equal to about 3.7 degrees Kelvin. 

However this means that according to concepts developed in the article “Defining energy” (mentioned earlier) the three-dimensional “surface” of our universe which has an average energy component of 3.7 degree Kelvin would be elevated with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Similarly if the “surface” of a three-dimensional manifold was elevated with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension as Einstein tell us as it would be if one redefined his space-time  universe in terms of four spatial dimension then it would be accelerated outward for the same reason as how the water in a pool whose sides had collapsed.

In other words one qualitatively understand the casually of the accelerated expansion of our universe in term of the physical image of water accelerating out of collapsed pool.

Some may feel that this is an over simplification of what appears on the surface to be a rather complex phenomena such as Dark Energy but is no more simplistic that the one use to help us understand how gravity works in a space-time environment.  Granted the math behind this concept may be complex and difficult to understand as it is with the gravitational curvature in space-time however that does not mean that we cannot use it to understand its causality.

It should be remember that Einsteinâ€s genius and the symmetry of his mathematics allows us to choose whether to define the forces associated with gravity and dark energy in either four *spatial* dimensions or four dimensional space-time.

Later Jeff

Copyright 2016 Jeffrey O’Callaghan

The post Dark Energy and Ockham’s razor appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

Quantum theory defines the existence of particles in terms of a mathematically generated probability function created by Schrödinger’s wave equation and assumes that particles do not exist until a conscience observer looks at it.  In other words it assumes the act of observation or measurement creates their reality.

However because it is based on probabilities it also assumes that the predictability associated with the laws of causality that govern our macroscopic universe do not apply to a quantum world.

In other words in quantum theory, everything is unpredictable.

Einstein hated this uncertainty, famously dismissing it when he said “God does not play dice with the universe” even though he was unable to give a reason.

However he gave us a clue as to why God must play dice when he said “If a new theory was not based on a physical image simple enough for a child to understand, it was probably worthless”

In other words we may be able to understand why a quantum environment lacks causality if we can transform the abstract or non-physical aspects or the probabilities associated with Schrödinger’s wave equation to one that more closely resembles the physical properties of our classical world.

For example Einstein told us that our physical environment is made up of four dimensional space-time however no one has ever observed the physicality of time or a space-time dimension.

Therefore it is extremely difficult to form a physical image of the quantum world or any other based on the existence of time or a space-time dimension because it is not part of our sensory environment.

Granted Einstein’s theories give us a detailed and very accurate description of how an interaction of time with the three *spatial* dimensions is responsible for the “reality” of the sensory world we inhabit and he was able to give us a clear physical image how a curvature in space-time can be responsible for gravity.

For example the most common physical image use to explain gravity does not use time but instead extrapolates the image of an object moving on a curved two dimensional “surface” in a three dimensional environment to four dimensional space-time.  However this image only contains reference only to the sensory reality of the spatial dimensions and not a time or space-time dimension.

Yet, the fact that most humans define our physical “reality” in terms of the spatial dimensions instead of a time or space-time dimension suggests that one may be able to form a physical image of how and why the quantum world is what it is by viewing our universe in terms of its spatial instead of its time properties.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used the velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his four dimensional space-time universe to a unit of a space identical to those of our three-dimensional space.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by mathematically defining the geometric properties of space-time in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining it in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einsteinâ€s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with gravity in terms of four *spatial* dimensions allows one to form an image of its causality in terms of the physical properties of the spatial dimension instead of the non-physical ones most of us associate with time or a space-time dimension. 

As was mentioned earlier one of the advantage to redefining Einstein space-time concepts in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is that it not only allows one to understand gravitational energy in more direct terms but also allows on to form a physical image in terms of a classical environment for the unpredictability of the quantum world.

For example in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct 4, 2007 it was shown one can derive the quantum mechanical properties of a particle by extrapolating the laws governing resonance in a classically three-dimensional environment to a matter wave moving on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  Additionally, it was showed why all energy exists in these resonant systems and therefore must be quantized.

Briefly it was showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as its natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would also be found in one consisting of four.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give three-dimensional space (the substance with a natural frequency) the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, these oscillations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold, according to classical mechanics would generate a resonant system or “structure” in space.  These resonant systems are known as particles.

(In an earlier article “The geometry of quarks” Mar. 2009 it will be shown how and why they join together to form these resonant systems in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.)

The energy in a classically resonating system is discontinuous and can only take on the discrete values associated with its fundamental or a harmonic of its fundamental frequency.

However, these properties of a classically resonating system are the same as those found in a particle in that they are made up of discreet or discontinuous packets of energy/mass.  This is the basis for assuming, as was done in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” that its quantum mechanical properties are a result of a resonant system in four *spatial* dimensions.

The reason why we do not observe energy in its extended wave form is that, as mentioned earlier all energy is propagated through space in discrete components associated with its resonant structure.  Therefore, its energy appears to originate from a specific point in space associated with where an observer samples or observes that that energy.

This is analogous to how the energy of water in a sink is release by allowing it to go down the drain.  If all we could observe is the water coming out of the drain we would have to assume that it was concentrated in the region of space defined by the diameter of the drain.  However, in reality the water occupies a much larger region.

However, treating the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass in terms of a resonant system generated by a matter wave also allows one to form a physical image of its unpredictability by extrapolating the laws of our classical three-dimensional world to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Classical wave mechanics tells us a waveâ€s energy is instantaneously constant at its peaks and valleys or the 90 and 270-degree points as its slope changes from positive to negative while it changes most rapidly at the 180 and 360-degree points.

Therefore, the precise position of a particle quantum mechanics associates Schrödinger’s wave equation with could be only be defined in terms of the peaks and valleys of the matter wave responsible for its resonant structure because those points are the only places where its energy or “position” is stationary with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  Whereas it’s precise momentum would only be definable with respect to where its energy change or velocity is maximum at the 180 and 360-degree points of that wave.  All points in between would only be definable in terms of a combination of its momentum and position.

However, to measure the exact position of a particle one would have to divert or “drain” all of the energy at the 90 or 270-degree points to the observing instrument leaving no energy associated with its momentum to be observed by another instrument.  Therefore, if one was able to determine precise position of a particle he or she could not determine anything about its momentum.  Similarly, to measure its precise momentum one would have to divert all of the energy at the 180 or 360 point of the wave to the observing instrument leaving none of its position information left to for an instrument which was attempting to measure it.  Therefore, if one was able to determine a particles exact momentum one could not say anything about its position.

The reason we observe a particle as a point mass instead of an extended object is because, as mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” showed its energy/mass must be packaged in terms of a resonant system.  Therefore, when we observe or “drain” the energy continued in its wave function, whether it be related to its position or momentum it will appear to come from a specific point in space similar how the energy of water flowing down a sink drain appears to be coming from a “point” source with respect the extended volume of water in the sink.

However, this allows one to form a physical image of the unpredictability of a quantum environment because it give us a Classical reason why we cannot precisely measure the both the momentum or position of a quantum object because the measurement of one effects the measurement of the other. 

For example, if one wants to measure the position of a particle to within a certain predefined distance “m” its wave energy or momentum will have to pass through that opening.  However, Classical Wave Mechanics tells us that as we reduce the error in our measurement by decreasing that predefine distance interference will cause its energy or momentum to be smeared our over a wider area.  Similarly, to measure its momentum one must observe a portion the wavelength associated with its momentum.  However, Classical wave mechanics tell us we must observe a larger portion of its wavelength to increase the accuracy of the measurement of its energy or momentum.  But this means that the accuracy of its position will be reduced because the boundaries determining its position within the measurement field are greater.

However, because of the dynamic interaction between the position and moment component of the matter wave responsible for generating the resonant system associated with a particle defined in the article a ”Why is energy/mass quantized?” the change or uncertainty of one with respect to the other would be defined by the product of those factors.

Another way of looking at this would be to allow a particle to pass through a slit and observe where it struck a screen on the other side.  One could get a more precise measurement of its position by narrowing the slit however classical wave mechanics tell us this will increase the interference of the wave properties associated with its resonant structure.  However this will cause the interference pattern defining its momentum to become more spread out and therefore make it more difficult to accurately determine its value.

Therefore, Classical wave mechanics, when extrapolated to Schrödinger’s wave equation in an environment consisting a fourth *spatial* dimension tells us the more precisely the momentum of a particle is known, the less precisely its position can be known while the more precisely its position is known, the less precisely its momentum can be determined.  In other words it tells us in terms of a physical image based on a classical environment the reason why God must play dice is because the physicality of a quantum environment prevents us from precisely determining the initial condition of a particle through observation.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey Oâ€Callaghan 2014

The post The causality of quantum probabilities or why God must play dice. appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

However there is a conceptual discontinuity between QFT and its relativistic component because it is based on the abstract properties mathematics while the Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is based on the physical properties of space-time environment.

For example the Schrödinger wave equation that is used to mathematically define a particle in QFT does so in terms of a non-dimensional harmonic oscillator at each point in space but does not define what is physically oscillating while Einstein defines the relativistic properties of space and time in terms of a physical interaction of time with three-dimensional space.  Additionally it is difficult to understand how non-dimensional point oscillation can be responsible for dimensional properties of a particle because by definition it cannot have those properties.

Yet one may be able resolve this issue if one views the relativistic properties of our universe in terms of four *spatial* dimensions instead of four dimensional space-time and define what physically happens to continuous properties of space and time when a particle is created.

(The reason will become obvious later.)

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used the velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his four dimensional space-time universe to a unit of space identical to those of our three-dimensional space.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by mathematically defining the geometric properties of time in his space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining it in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einstein’s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of the field properties of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases for assuming, as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space field with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

However it also allows one to define the physicality of the harmonic oscillator QFT associates with a particle in terms of physical interaction of the field properties of three-dimensional space with a fourth spatial dimensional similar to how Einstein define gravity in terms of a physical interaction of time with three-dimensional space.

For example the article, “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed that one can explain and understand the physicality of the harmonic oscillator QFT associates with particles terms of the classical field properties of a wave by extrapolating the laws of resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave moving on “surface” of a three dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  It also explained why all energy must be quantized or exist in these discrete resonant oscillators when observed.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in a matter wave moving in four *spatial* dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, the oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Observations of a three-dimensional environment show the energy associated with resonant system can only take on the incremental or discreet values associated with a fundamental or a harmonic of the fundamental frequency of its environment.

Similarly the energy associated with resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions could only take on the incremental or discreet values associated a fundamental or a harmonic of the fundamental frequency of its environment.

Therefore these resonant systems in would be responsible incremental or discreet energy associated with quantum mechanical systems.

This allows one to define the physicality of the harmonic oscillators QFT associates with particles in terms field properties of either four dimensional space-time or four spatial dimensions because as was shown earlier they are equivalent.

However, one can also define its field properties of a particle in terms of the boundaries of its harmonic oscillator.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the spatial boundaries of the harmonic resonator associated with a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“

However as mentioned earlier it also defines the physical boundaries of the harmonic oscillator QFT associates with a particle in terms of the properties of a wave moving on a continuous field consisting of four *spatial* dimensions or four dimensional space-time because remember as was show earlier they are equivalent

This also provides the ability to understand the inseparability of the concepts of a field and particles in QFT because it clearly defines how one is depend on the other.

However it also explains why a field can display either the properties of a particle or the wave properties of a harmonic oscillator when measured because if one wants to measure the total energy contained in a given volume of space one will observe it as a particle while if one want to measure how it is propagated through space one must observe its wave properties.

Additionally it defines a classical reason why particles sometimes behave like oscillators and sometimes like particle and why it is impossible simultaneously observe these two different properties.

As shown earlier the energy contained in a quanta of space associated with a particle would be defined by the wavelength of its harmonic oscillator.  In other words to observe or measure the particle properties of a given volume of space one has to sample all of its energy leaving nothing of its wave component to measure.  Similarly if one wants to observe or measure fully the wave energy of a quantum of space one would have to sample all of its energy leaving none of its particle properties behind. 

(If one does not want to observe all of the energy in a given volume of space then one would expect that the difference would be made up by the emission of the harmonic oscillator QFT associates with photon or other particle.)

The reason why one cannot simultaneously measure both its wave and particle of the harmonic oscillator it is because as mentioned the energy of a particle is defined by its wave properties. Since the energy that defines a particle is the smallest unit of its harmonic oscillator if one measures its particle properties there would be no wave energy left for measuring its wave proprieties while if someone measure its wave energy there would be no energy left to support its particle properties. Therefore making one of these measurements precludes the other.

This shows that one can integrate the abstract mathematical properties of Schrödinger wave equation or the foundation of Quantum field theory with the continuous physical of space and time In Einstein’s theory of relativity.

It should be remember Einsteinâ€s genius allows us to chose whether to solve all problems in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in terms of energy/mass and the constant velocity of light. This interchangeability broadens the environment encompassed by his theories by making them applicable to both the spatial as well as the time properties of our universe and gives us a new perspective on the integration of QFT with the relativistic properties of space and time.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2014

The post Solving the conceptual problems with quantum fields appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

“However far the quantum physical phenomena transcend the scope of classical physical explanation, the account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word “experiment” we refer to a situation where we can tell others what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangements and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics.

This crucial point…implies the impossibility of any sharp separation between the behavior of atomic objects and the interaction with the measuring instruments which serve to define the conditions under which the phenomena appear…. Consequently, evidence obtained under different experimental conditions cannot be comprehended within a single picture, but must be regarded as complementary in the sense that only the totality of the phenomena exhausts the possible information about the object.”

In other words he did not think that it was possible to use classical concepts to integrate the wave and particle characteristics of a quantum particle into a single picture therefore he felt that there exits a physical division between the macroscopic world of classical objects and the microscopic world of quantum particles. 

However this may not be the true and one can understand why if one views the universe in terms of four *spatial* dimensions instead of four dimensional space-time.

(The reason will become obvious later.)

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used the velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his space-time universe to a unit of a *spatial* dimension identical to those in our three-dimensional universe .  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by mathematically defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining it in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einstein’s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases for assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

However it also allows one to understand the wave particle duality of energy/mass or its complementary property in terms of the concepts of classical physics.

For example the article, “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed that one can explain and understand the physicality of its particle properties in terms of the classical concept of waves by extrapolating the laws of resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave moving on “surface” of a three dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  It also explains why all energy must be quantized or exist in these discrete resonant systems when observed.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in a matter wave moving in four *spatial* dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, the oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four spatial dimensions.

Observations of a three-dimensional environment show the energy associated with resonant system can only take on the incremental or discreet values associated with a fundamental or a harmonic of the  fundamental frequency of its environment.

Similarly the energy associated with resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions could only take on the incremental or discreet values associated a fundamental or a harmonic of the fundamental frequency of its environment.

Therefore these resonant systems in would be responsible incremental or discreet energy associated with quantum mechanical systems.

This allows one to define the particle properties of energy/mass in terms of the classical concepts of a wave.

However, one can define its wave properties in terms of the classical concepts of a particle in terms of the boundaries of its resonant structure.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the spatial boundaries of the resonant system associated with a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“

However it also defines the particle properties of waves in terms of the classical concept of resonant properties of a box because its physical properties define its frequency and energy.

This also provides the ability to understand the inseparability of the wave particle duality of energy/mass because it clearly demonstrates how one is depend on the other.

However it also explains why quantum systems either display the properties of a particle or a wave when measured because if one wants to measure the total energy contained in a given volume of space one will observe it as a particle while if one want to measure how it is propagated through space one must observe its wave properties.

Additionally it defines a classical reason why particles sometimes behave like wave and sometimes like particle and why it is impossible simultaneously observe these two different properties.

As shown earlier the energy contained in a quanta of space associated with a particle would be defined by the energy associated with the wavelength of its resonate structure.  In other words to observe or measure the particle properties of a given volume of space one has to sample all of its energy leaving nothing of its wave component to measure.  Similarly if one wants to observe or measure fully the wave energy of a quantum of space one would have to sample all of its energy leaving none of its particle properties.

(If one does not want to observe all of the energy in a given volume of space then one would expect that the difference would be made up by the emission of a photon or other particle whose energy would correspond to that difference.)

The reason why one cannot simultaneously measure both its wave and particle properties is because as mentioned the energy of a particle is defined by the wave properties of its resonant structure.  Since the resonant system that defines a particle is the smallest unit of its resonate structure if one measures its particle properties there would be no wave energy left for measuring its wave proprieties while if someone measure its wave energy there would be no energy left to support its particle properties. Therefore making one of these measurements precludes the other.

This demonstrates how one can integrate the wave and particle characteristics of a quantum particle into a single picture and why the  physical division between the macroscopic world of classical objects and the microscopic world of quantum particles as was assumed by Bohr many not exist. 

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2014

The post A classical interpretation of the complementary principal appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

But what does the discovery of the Higgs Boson tell us about the reality of the Higgs field.
This is an import question because its existence is based on abstract mathematical constructs which may or may not describe its reality.  In other words even though they may have predicted its existence it has not yet been connected it to the observable reality of what we can see and touch.

The importance of connecting a theoretical idea to the observable properties of our world was demonstrated by Einstein 200 years after Newton realized that his gravitational theory meant “one body may act upon another at a distance”.

“It is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact…That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it.”

However Einstein realized that one can understand how gravity “may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum” by extrapolating the physical image of how objects move on a curve surface in a three-dimensional environment to a curved four dimensional space-time manifold. This allowed him to conceptually understand gravity in terms of a physical image based on our three-dimension environment.

In other words the mathematics developed by Newton was only able to quantitatively predict gravitational forces while Einstein gave us the ability to conceptually understand why “one body may act upon another at a distance” by physically connecting it to the reality of what we can see and touch.

However he was unable to tell us what mass is, he was only able tell us how mass interacts with space-time.

As Steven Weinberg said “Mass tells space-time how to curve while space-time tells mass how to move”.

This is similar to Newton in that he was able to mathematically define how mass gravitational interacts with other masses but was unable to understand or define a physical mechanism that could account for that interaction.

Einstein was often quoted as saying “If a new theory (such as that associated with the Higgs boson) was not based on a physical image simple enough for a child to understand, it was probably worthless.”

In other words to fully understand the theoretical significance of the Higgs Field and why it is responsible for mass one should be able to describe how it interacts with mass in terms of a physical image based on what we can see and touch in our three-dimensional world much as Einstein was able describe how space and time interacted with each other to cause gravity.

Most scientists would agree that the best way to accomplish this would be by observing how mass interacts with space-time.

Unfortunately mass does not directly interact with time because we do not see a change in it no matter how long we wait however we can observe how its position in space can change with time.

This suggests that we may be able to form a physical image of the reality of the Higgs field if we could redefine Einstein space-time geometry associated with forces in terms of the spatial properties of position we associated  with mass.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he defined the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of the balance between mass and energy defined by the equation E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light because that provided a method of converting the displacement in space-time he associated with energy to its equivalent spatial  displacement in four *spatial* dimensions.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

This was the bases for assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy including thermo and that associated with mass can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension instead of one in a space-time environment.

However changing ones perspective on the geometric structure of the universe form one of space-time to four *spatial* dimensions, as was just shown to be possible gives one the ability to define the physical mechanism by which the Higgs Field or the field properties of four *spatial* dimension creates mass and why it is quantized in the fundamental particles of the Standard Model in terms of a physical image formed by our three-dimensional environment.

For example one can form a physical image of why mass is quantized, as was done in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007″ by extrapolating the image of a wave and its resonant properties in three dimension environment to one made up of four *spatial* dimensions. This would be analogous to how Einstein, as mentioned earlier was able to explain gravity by extrapolating the physical image of how objects move in a three-dimension space to one consisting of four dimensional space-time.

(Louis de Broglie was the first to predict the existence of the wave properties of mass when he theorized that all particles have a wave component.  His theories were confirmed by the discovery of electron diffraction by crystals in 1927 by Davisson and Germer).

Briefly that article showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would be meet in one consisting of four.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave that Louis de Broglie associated with a particle the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold to oscillate with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension at a frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, the oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us that resonant systems can only take on the discrete or quantized energies associated with a fundamental or a harmonic of their fundamental frequency

Therefore, these resonant systems in a four *spatial* dimensions would define mass and its quantum mechanical properties because of the fact that the volumes of space containing them would have a higher concentration of energy and therefore the mass associated with those volumes would be greater.

This suggest that the Higgs field is made up of the field properties of four *spatial* dimensions and that the magnitude of a mass would be dependent on its geometrical configuration.

If true one should be able to use those field concepts to explain why the mass of corresponding particle types across the three fundamental families of particles in the Standard Model listed in the table below grows larger in each successive family.

As mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” showed that one can derive the mass of a particle in terms of the energy contained within a resonant system generated by a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension while the article “Defining energy” showed that one can derive the energy or temperature of an environment in terms a displacement in the same three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Therefore using the concepts developed in those articles one could derive the total mass of a particle in terms of the sum of the energies associated with that resonant structure and the displacement in the “surface” of three-dimensional space associated with the energy of the environment it is occupying.

Yet Classical Mechanics tells us there will be specific points in space where the matter wave that Louis de Broglie associated with a particle can interact with the energy content or temperature of its environment to form a resonant system.

Therefore, the mass of each family member would not only be dependent on the energy associated with the resonant system that defined their quantum mechanical properties in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” but also on temperature or energy of the environment they are occupying.

Thus suggest the reason “The corresponding particle types across the three families have identical properties except for their mass, which grows larger in each successive family.” is because of an interaction between the resonant properties defined in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” and the mass content of the environment they are occupying.

This means the particles in the first family would be found in relativity low energy environments, are relatively stable, and for the most part can be observed in nature.  However, the particles in the second and third families would be for the most part unstable and can be observed only in high-energy environments of particle accelerators.  The exception is the Muon in the second family, which is only observed in the high-energy environment of cosmic radiation.

The relative masses of the fundamental particles increases in each successive family because the higher-energy environments where they occupy would result in the corresponding particles in each successive family to be formed with a greater relative “separation” in the “surfaces” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Therefore, the corresponding particles in the second family will have a greater mass than the particles in the first family because the “separation”, with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension of the three-dimensional space manifold associated with them is greater than the “separation” associated with the first family.

Similarly, the corresponding particles in the third family will have a greater mass than those in the second family because the “separation”, with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension, of the three-dimensional space manifold associated with them is greater than the spatial “separation” associated with the second family.

Additionally the corresponding particle types across the three families have “identical properties” because as shown in the article “The geometry of quarks” Mar. 15, 2009 they are related to the orientation of the “W” axis of the fourth *spatial* dimension with the axis of three-dimensional space.  Therefore, each corresponding particle across the three families will have similar properties because the orientation of the “W” axis of the fourth *spatial* dimension with respect to the axis of three-dimensional space is the same for the corresponding particles in all of the families.

This explains why “The corresponding particle types across the three families having identical properties except for their mass, which grows larger in each successive family” in terms of the properties of classical resonance and the field properties of four *spatial* dimensions.

This shows how one can use the field properties of four *spatial* dimension or the Higgs Field to understand the causality of the masses of the fundamental particles in the Standard model in terms of a physical image based on the reality of what we can see and touch in our three dimensional environment.

However assuming the Higgs Field is created by the geometry of four *spatial* dimensional allows one to understand the dynamics of the mass of the Higgs boson in same terms as the fundamental particles defined above.

As mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” showed that one can derive the total mass of all particles in terms of the sum of energy contained within a resonant system generated by a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension and the energy associated with displacement in the “surface” of three-dimensional space associated the environment it is occupying.

However if one assumes as was done above the Higgs field is created by a spatial displacement in the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension one can conceptually understand how it interacts with space to create its potential energy in terms of the physical image formed by water in a dam. This is because the potential energy of water is defined by its spatial separation with respect to the bottom of a dam.  Therefore according to the above theoretical model, the potential energy or mass contained in the Higgs boson would be defined by its spatial separation in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

In other words it gives one the ability to define the energy and therefore the mass of the Higgs bosom and where it should be located in an environment consisting of four *spatial* dimension in terms of the physical image of water in a dam.  This is because as mentioned earlier the potential energy of water in a dam is solely dependent on the height of the dam while that of the Higgs Boson would be dependent on magnitude of the spatial separation of the three-dimension space manifold it is occupying with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This shows how it is possible to understand the reality of the Higgs Field in terms of a physical image by reformatting (as was done in the article “Reformulating space-time” Oct 1, 2013) Einstein General Theory of Relativity in terms of four *spatial* dimensions.

It should be remember that Einstein’s genius allows us to chose whether to view the reality of the Higgs Field in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in terms of energy/mass and the constant velocity of light.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013 

The post The “reality” of the Higgs field appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

In first scenario, there would be enough matter in the universe to slow the expansion to the point where, like the baseball, it would come to a halt and the gravitational forces associated with it would result in it retracting causing it to crash together in a “Big Crunch.”

In the other scenario, there would be too little matter to stop the expansion and everything would drift on forever, always slowing and slowing but never stopping. This would end in a vast, dark, and cold state: a “Big Chill,” as the stars faded and died out.

However the discovery of Dark Energy or a force causing the accelerated expansion of the universe opened up the possibility that the galaxies, solar system, stars, planets, and even molecules and atoms could be shredded by the ever-faster expansion.  In other words the universe that was born in a violent expansion could end with an even more violent expansion called the Big Rip.
Most scientists would agree that the best way of determining which one these scenarios defines its ultimate fate would be to list all of the observations regarding the forces controlling its expansion and try to understand them based on the most successful theories we have regarding the macroscopic properties of energy/mass.

For example it is assumed by many that because space is everywhere, the force called Dark Energy is everywhere therefore its effects should increases as it expands.  In contrast, gravity’s force is stronger when things are close together and weaker when they are far apart.  Therefore many believe the expansion will continue at an ever increasing rate, eventually ripping space apart.

However if one views the observational evidence supporting the existence of Dark Energy in terms of the laws of thermodynamics and Einstein’s theories, it strongly suggests that it will weaken not increase as space expands and that eventually gravity will become the dominate force in our universe.

Observations of the expansive force called Dark Energy tell us that three-dimensional space is expanding towards a higher spatial dimension not a time or space-time dimension.  

Therefore, to explain the observed spatial expansion of the universe one would have to assume the existence of a another *spatial* or fourth *spatial* dimension in addition to the three spatial dimensions and one time dimension that Einstein’s theories contain to account for that observation.

This would be true if Einstein had not given us a means of qualitatively and quantitatively converting the geometric properties of his space-time universe to one consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions.

Einstein defined the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of a dynamic balance between mass and energy defined by the equation E=mc^2.  However when he used the constant velocity of light to define that balance he provided a method of converting a unit of space he associated with mass to a unit of space-time he associated with energy.   Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of mass/energy and the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that the equation E=mc^2 allows us to quantitatively derive the spatial properties of energy in a space-time universe in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is  the bases for assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

As mentioned earlier it is difficult to integrate the causality of how three-dimensional space can be expanding towards a higher *spatial” dimension into Einstein space-time universe because it does not define a higher spatial dimension. 

However it is easy integrate it if one reformulates it, as was done above in terms higher fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet it also allows one to understand how and why the expansive force called Dark Energy is causing the spatial expansion of our universe in terms of the laws of thermodynamics because it gives one the ability, as mentioned earlier to use his equations to qualitatively and quantitatively define energy in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimensions instead of one in a space-time environment.

We know from the study of thermodynamics that energy flows from areas of high density to one of low density very similar to how water flows form an elevated or “high density” point to a lower one.

For example, if the walls of an above ground pool filled with water collapse the elevated two-dimensional surface of the water will flow or expand and accelerate outward towards the three-dimensional environment surrounding it while the force associated with that expansion decreases as it expands.

Yet we know from observations of the cosmic background radiation that presently our three-dimensional universe has an average energy component equal to about 3.7 degrees Kelvin. 

However this means that according to concepts developed in the article “Defining energy” (mentioned earlier) the three-dimensional “surface” of our universe which has an average energy component of 3.7 degree Kelvin would be elevated with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet this means similar to the two dimensional surface of the water in the pool three-dimensional space will accelerate and flow or expand outward in the four dimensional environment surrounding it and that the force associated with that expansion will decline as it expands.

This shows how reformulating Einstein’s theories in terms of four spatial dimensions allows one to use the laws of thermodynamics to explain what the force called Dark Energy is and why it is causing the accelerated expansion of the universe in terms of the Einstein’s theories.

As mentioned earlier many feel that because space is everywhere, the force called Dark Energy is everywhere, and its effects increase as space expands. I n contrast, gravity’s force is stronger when things are close together and weaker when they are far apart.

However if the above theoretical model is correct than the magnitude of Dark Energy relative to gravitational energy will not continue to increase as the universe expands but will decrease because Einstein also told us that there is an equivalence between mass and energy and since mass is associated with the attractive properties of gravity it also tells us, because of that equivalence, the kinetic energy associated with the universeâ€s expansion also possess those attractive properties. However the law of conservation of energy/mass tells us that in a closed system the creation of kinetic energy cannot exceed the gravitational energy associated with the total energy/mass in the universe and that a reduction in one must be compensated for by an increase in the other.

This means the total gravitation potential of the universe must increase as it expands and cools approaching a maximum value at absolute “0” while at the same time the kinetic energy of its expansive components must decrease. Therefore, at some point in time, the universe MUST enter a contractive phase because the total gravitational potential must eventually exceed the kinetic energy of its expansion. This is would be true even though the gravitational potential of its kinetic energy components would be disturbed or “diluted” by a factor of c^2.

(Some may try to dismiss this by saying that as the universe expands its energy is spread out over a larger volume so after a while it just vanishes so to speak or as some like to say that the universe experiences a heat death.  However Einstein theories do not permit energy to just disappear or “die”.  It unequivocally tells us that if the kinetic energy content in a closed environment decreases as it cools the mass content of that environment must increase irrespective of the volume of that environment.  Therefore because by definition the universe is a closed system one must assume that any reduction in its overall energy content of the universe including its heat energy must be must be compensated for by an increase in its total attractive gravitational mass content.)

Therefore, just after the big bang when the concentration of energy and mass was high, gravitational force would predominate over Dark Energy because the distance between both its energy and mass components was relatively small.

However as the universe expands the its gravitational attractive forces will decrease more rapidly than the expansive force associated with Dark Energy because they are related to the square of the distance between them while those of the expansive forces of Dark Energy are more closely related to a linear function of the total energy of content of the universe. 

Therefore after a given period of time the expansive forces associated with Dark Energy will become predominate and the expansion of the universe will accelerate.

However as the universe expands and cools that force will decrease because as mentioned earlier similar to the two-dimensional surface of the water in a collapsed pool, the forces associated with that expansion will decrease as it expands.

This means that eventually gravitational forces will win because, as mentioned earlier thermodynamics tells us the total accelerative forces associated with Dark Energy will decease and therefore will eventually approach zero, while the total mass content and the gravitational attractive forces associated with it will remain constant as the universe expands even though they may be separated by a greater distant.

Therefore, gravity will eventually win the battle with dark Energy because as was just mentioned the forces associated with it approach zero as the expansion progress while those of gravity remain constant.

There can be no other conclusion if one accepts the validity of Einstein’s theories and the laws of thermodynamics because the theoretical arguments presented here are a base solely on their validity.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013

The post Gravity or dark energy: which one will win? appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

The wave–particle duality postulates that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. A central concept of quantum mechanics, this duality addresses the inability of classical concepts like "particle" and "wave" to fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects.  Standard interpretations of quantum mechanics explain this paradox as a fundamental property of the Universe, while alternative interpretations explain the duality as an emergent, second-order consequence of various limitations of the observer.

However it may be possible to understand it in classical terms if one assumes the universe is composed of four *spatial* dimensions instead of four dimensional space time.

(The reason will become obvious later)

The double slit experiment is made up of "A coherent source of photons illuminating a screen after passing through a thin plate with two parallel slits cut in it.  The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through both slits to interfere, creating an interference pattern of bright and dark bands on the screen.  However, at the screen, the light is always found to be absorbed as discrete particles, called photons.
When only one slit is open, the pattern on the screen is a diffraction pattern however, when both slits are open, the pattern is similar but with much more detailed.  These facts were elucidated by Thomas Young in a paper entitled "Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics," published in 1803.  To a very high degree of success, these results could be explained by the method of Huygens–Fresnel principle that is based on the hypothesis that light consists of waves propagated through some medium.  However, discovery of the photoelectric effect made it necessary to go beyond classical physics and take the quantum nature of light into account.

However the most baffling part of this experiment comes when only one photon at a time impacts a barrier with two opened slits because an interference pattern forms which is similar to what it was when multiple photons were impacting the barrier.  This is a clear implication the particle called a photon has a wave component, which simultaneously passes through both slits and interferes with itself.  (The experiment works with electrons, atoms, and even some molecules too.)"

Yet as mentioned earlier one can derive the fact that a photon exhibits both the characteristics of a particle and wave in terms of classical concepts by transposing or converting the space-time geometry of relativity to one of four *spatial* dimensions and the spatial properties quantum mechanics associates with its energy.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used he used the velocity of light to defined the geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his space-time universe to a unit of space in an environment consisting four *spatial* dimensions.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by mathematically defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einstein’s equations to qualitatively and qualitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases of assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

However it also allows one to understand the wave particle duality of photon and all other particles as is demonstrated in Thomson’s double slit experiment in terms of the concepts of classical physics.

For example the article, "Why is energy/mass quantized?" Oct. 4, 2007 showed that one can use the concept developed in the article “Defining energy?” to explain and understand the physicality of the wave properties of all particles including a photon by extrapolating the laws of classical resonance in a three dimensional environment to a matter wave moving on “surface” of a three dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  It also explains why all energy must be quantized or exists in these discrete resonant systems when observed.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in a matter wave moving in four *spatial* dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a "surface" between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, the oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or "structure" to be established in four spatial dimensions.

As was shown in that article these resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions are responsible for its quantum mechanical properties.

Additionally it also tells us why in terms of the physical properties four dimensional space-time or four *spatial* dimensions an electron cannot fall into the nucleus is because, as was shown in that article all energy is contained in four dimensional resonant systems. In other words the energy released by an electron "falling" into it would have to manifest itself in terms of a resonate system. Since the fundamental or lowest frequency available for a stable resonate system in either four dimensional space-time or four spatial dimension corresponds to the energy of an electron it becomes one of the fundamental energy units of the universe.

However, it does not explain how the boundaries of a particleâ€s resonant structure are defined.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate "up" or "down" with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the "upward" and "downward" oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the geometric spatial boundaries of the resonant system associated with a particle in the article "Why is energy/mass quantized?"

This provides the ability to understand, in classical terms the inseparability of the wave-particle duality of energy/mass that is demonstrated in Thomson’s double slit experiment is because clearly demonstrates how the one is dependent on the other.

Briefly it shows the reason why the interference patterns remains when one photon at a time is fired at the barrier with both slits open or "the most baffling part of this experiment" is because, as mentioned earlier it is made up of a resonant system or "structure" therefore it occupies an extended volume which is directly related to the wavelength of its particle system.

This means a portion of a particles energy could simultaneously pass both slits, if the diameter of its volume exceeds the separation of the slits and recombine on the other side to generate an interference pattern. 

It also explains why the interference pattern disappears,when a detector is added to determine which slit a photon has passed through.  The energy required to measure which one of the two slits its energy passes through interacts with it causing the wavelength of that portion to change so that it will not have the same resonant characteristics as one that passed through the other slit   Therefore, the energy passing thought that slit will not be able to interact, in most cases with the energy passing through the other one to form an interference pattern on the screen.

It also defines in classical terms  the reason, why the measurements of energy/mass takes the form particles and not waves in Thomson’s double slit experiment

As mentioned earlier, the article "Why is energy/mass quantized?" showed energy must be propagated through space in quantized resonant systems if one applies the concept of classical mechanics to a matter wave on "surface" of a three-dimension space.  Therefore, because its energy must be propagated through space to be observed the energy impacting the screen will have the discrete non-wavelike characteristics of a particle.

Richard Feynman the farther of Quantum Electrodynamics or "OED" realized the significance of this experiment because it demonstrates the inseparability of the wave and particle properties of particles and felt a complete understanding of quantum mechanics could be gleaned from carefully thinking through its implications.

The above article demonstrates why.

It shows the quantum mechanical particle and wave properties of energy/mass displayed in the double slit experiment can be understood if one assumes they are made up of a resonant system in a moving on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Latter Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013

The post Thomson’s double slit experiment in four spatial dimensions appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

However the reason may be because gravity is not propagated by a particle such as a photon but by field properties of space.

The currently accepted view among most cosmologist and physicist is that all forces mediated by particles.  This viewpoint is support the success the Standard Model of Particle Physics has had in explaining and predicting the observed properties of electromagnetic energy, weak, and strong nuclear forces in terms of particles.  It makes very accurate and verifiable predictions of the nature and causality of those forces in terms of particle interactions.

However it falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions because it cannot or does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation as described by General Relativity.  This is because Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity derives gravity in terms of a continuous curvature in the field properties of four-dimensional space-time and not in terms of the discontinuous properties of the quantum.

This fact makes it extremely difficult to conceptually integrate them because something that is discontinuous cannot be by definition continuous.
However it may be possible to integrate gravity with the particle properties of the forces defined in the Standard Model if instead of assuming they are propagated by particles one assumes that the particle properties of all forces are propagated by the fields.

It is easier to explain the mechanism responsible for creating the gravity or quantum of gravitational force by redefine Einstein’s space-time universe into one consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions.

(The reason will become obvious latter in the article)

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used he used equation of E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to defined gravity in terms geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his space-time universe to a unit of space.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

However it allows one to define a physical mechanism that would responsible creating a particle or quanta of space-time in terms of the field properties of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed it is possible to explain the discontinuous properties of space by extrapolating the laws classical resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a continuous “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its resonant or a harmonic of its resonant frequency

Therefore these discrete or quantized energy of resonant systems in a field consisting of four *spatial* dimensions would be responsible for the particle characteristics the standard model associates with the propagation of gravity electromagnetic energy, weak, and strong nuclear forces.

However, it does not explain how or why we observed them in terms of discontinuous properties of a particle instead of the continuous properties of a field as the above theoretical model and Einstein Theories predicts we should.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension defines the mechanism responsible for the quantization of the field properties of space associated with energy/mass in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“.

Quantum mechanics defines the smallest possible unit of space and increment of energy in terms of Planck’s length “h” while defining the size of an individual quantum of force in terms of the equation E = h c / L. 

In other words the physical size of the fundamental quanta of all forces is not the same as is suggest by the Standard Model of Particle Physics and quantum mechanics but varies with their energy and the higher energy there is the smaller its volume.

However this means the length and therefore the volume of a Graviton would be considerably larger when compared to the volume associated with a quantum unit of the electromagnetic weak or strong forces because of its relatively low energy content with respect to theirs.

The theoretical evidence to support this conclusion is provided by the fact that the energy of a quantum of force is mathematically defined by its frequency and wavelength.  This means a higher energy particle with a shorter wavelength would occupy a smaller volume than lower energy ones.

Observational evidence can be found in the fact that quanta of the strong and weak forces can only be observe in particle accelerators capable of generating the energy required to magnify their environment enough to allow for us to observe them.

In other words the reason why we can observe quanta of the strong and weak forces is because we can create experimental apparatus that can magnify the environment to the point where they become visible.

While a quantum of a less energetic electromagnetic force associated with visible light is observable because it size is comparable to the size to the sensing apparatus in the cones and rods in the eyes use to detect it.

However electromagnetic forced is about a million billion billion billion billion (10^42) times stronger than gravitational.

Using the same logic one reason why we have been unable to observe a Graviton may be because we have been unable to construct an observing platform a million billion billion billion billion (10^42) larger than the one need to observe quanta of electromagnetic force of the same strength. 

However the relatively large size of a Graviton or an individual quanta of gravity predicted by quantum mechanics suggests another reason why we have been unable to observe it.

We know from observations that gravitational forces act on much smaller scales than the physical size of an individual Graviton predicted by quantum mechanics. However this means that we should observe that the orbital energy of objects should also be quantized.

Some may disagree by saying that the size of the quantum unit of gravitational force is too small relative to the mass of objects that the effect of its quantization would be unobservable.

However the equation that defines the size of a Gravitron ( E = h c / L ) tells us that it would relatively large with respect to the orbits of many of the observable planets.  Additionally the force of gravity is always attractive or only acts in one direction therefore the effects of its quantization would be cumulative

In other words if gravity is propagated by the graviton the cumulative effects over the life of the universe should be observable with the increased sensitivity and high resolution of modern instrumentation.

Therefore one must assume that Einstein was correct we he defined gravity in terms of its field and not the quantum properties of space-time because if it was propagated by the Graviton then quantum mechanics tells us due to its relative large size that we should have observed discrete regions of space where orbits of stars planets and moons are not found.

This strongly suggest the reason why we have been unable to observe a Graviton is because gravity is not propagated it but by the field properties of space.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013 

The post Finding the graviton appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

One of them is that it would give explanation of why time is dilated in bodies that are in relative motion or a gravitational field that is more consistent with its observed properties than is provided by the space-time concepts of Albert Einstein’s Special and General Theories of Relativity. 

For example observations made by both physicists and non physicists alike suggests that time is only a non-physical measure of when in relation to other events a physical, chemical, and biological change take place similar to how a unit of length is a non-physical measure of the where in relation to other objects one is located in a three dimensional environment. This is because similar to time, length is not perceived as having the physical properties of matter or space but only as measurement of where one object is located relative to another. 

In other words observations regarding time suggest that it only has the non-physical properties associated with a measurement and not the physical properties of Einstein’s time or space-time dimension.
Additionally our perception of irreversibly of time or that it always moves in one direction, forward also appears to contradict the concept that it has physical properties because it is possible to reverse the position of an object in a spatial dimension whereas one cannot in a time or space-time dimensions.  For example, one can move an object to a different position with respect to where it was and then reverse the process and move it back to its original position three-dimensional space whereas one cannot in a move an object forward in a space-time dimension time and then move it back to its original position with respect to time.  Therefore observations suggest that a time or a space-time dimension does not share the physical properties associated with the spatial dimensions.

Therefore, defining a space-time dimension in terms of its physical properties as Einstein did does not appear to be consistent with the observation that time is irreversible.

However, this same observation, as was shown in the earlier article “Defining time” Sept 20, 2007 suggest that time may only be a non-physical a measure of the sequential ordering of the casualty of events because one cannot reverse the causality of an event without creating a new event thereby making it consistent with the perception of its irreversibility.

That article also showed why assuming time only has the non-physical properties of a measurement would provide an unambiguous definition of it that is more consistent with both physical and mathematical observations of time than defining it in terms of the physical properties of a dimension as Einstein had done.

It also points out one of the most obvious observational flaws with Einstein’s assumption of the physicality of time or a space-time dimension is that no one has ever observed any of its physical properties and therefore it is difficult to explain or understand how it can interact with the physicality of three-dimensional space to cause gravity. 

Yet Einstein gave us a way of translating the non observable physical properties of time to the physically observable properties of a spatial dimension when he defined its geometry in terms of the constancy of the velocity of light.

Einstein defined the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of a dynamic balance between mass and energy defined by the equation E=mc^2.  However when he used the constant velocity of light in the equation E=mc^2 to define that balance he provided a method of converting a unit of space he associated with mass to a unit of space-time he associated with energy.   Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of energy/mass and the constant velocity of light he provided a quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

Observations of our environment tell us that all forms of mass have a spatial component or volume and because of the equivalence defined by Einstein’s one must assume that energy also must have spatial properties.

As mentioned earlier Einstein equation E=mc^2 tell us there is a dynamic relationship between the geometric properties of our universe and mass/energy in that when one coverts mass to energy in a closed three-dimensional *spatial* environment, the space it is made up of expands while if one coverts energy to mass that environment contracts.  Yet it is difficult to understand how three-dimensional space can both expand and contract in a space-time universe because our experiences tell with time tells us that it only moves in one direction forward.  However it is easy to understand how it could in one consisting of four *spatial* dimension because our experiences it tell us that we can move in two direction in a spatial environment up down forwards of backwards.

The fact that one can use the equation E=mc^2 to qualitatively derive the spatial properties of energy in a space-time universe in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one the bases of assuming as was done in the article “Defining potential and kinetic energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  In other words one can use Einstein’s equations to quantitatively and conceptually define energy in terms of a displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimensions.

However, as was shown in the article “Gravity in four spatial dimensions” Dec. 01, 2007 one can use the same technique to derive a one to one qualitative and quantitative correspondence between the space-time curvature Einstein postulated was responsible for gravity and the curvature in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension that article postulated was responsible for it.  Additionally because they are both based on constancy of the velocity of light the relative magnitude of the “curvature” caused by given quantity of energy/mass in a space-time universe and one consisting of fourth *spatial* dimensions will be identical.  In other word the magnitude of a gravitational field in both a space-time environment and one of four *spatial* dimensions would be dependent on the quantity of energy/mass that environment contained.

However as was mentioned earlier a worldview based on the existence of four *spatial* dimension instead of four dimensional space-time has an advantage in that it also allows one to explain time dilation and predict relativistic properties of space, time, mass, and energy in terms of the observable spatial properties of a three-dimensional environment instead of as Einstein did of using the unobservable ones of a time or a space-time dimension.

For example we observe that the kinetic energy associated with a satellite opposes the gravitational energy of the object it is orbiting.

It is difficult to understand why in terms of four dimensional space-time because as mentioned earlier all forms of energy in a space-time environment are defined in terms of a curvature in its geometry. However because time is observed to only move in one direction this curvature for both kinetic and gravitational energy must always be in the same direction thereby making it difficult to explain why they oppose each other.

However this is not a problem if one defines energy as was done in the article “Defining potential and kinetic energy?” in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions because we observe that we can move in two direction upwards and downwards or backwards and forwards in a *spatial* dimension.

Therefore one can explain and understand why kinetic and gravitational energy oppose each other by deriving them in terms of oppositely directed curvatures in “surface’ of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However this means according the concepts outlined above the total energy/mass of an object would be equal to the sum of the absolute value of the displacements in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold caused by the rest mass of an object and that caused by its relative velocities.  This is because the total curvature associated the kinetic and gravitational energy in a given volume of space would be equal to sum of the difference between their magnitudes and because there are opposite or negatively directed with respect to the each other one would have to add their absolute magnitudes to get the total energy/mass in a given volume space.

Therefore, the total energy/mass of an object would be dependent on its relative motion because one must add the energy/mass associated with its motion to its rest energy/mass.

However defining the gravity and kinetic energy in terms of oppositely directed curvatures in four *spatial* dimensions not only defines the reason for the mass increases associated with relative velocities that is more consistent with observations but it also provides an more consistent explanation for the casualty of time dilation and the length foreshortening observed in gravitational and moving reference frames based on physical observations made in a three-dimensional environment.

The following analogy can be used to understand and define the relativistic properties length and time based on observations made in a three-dimensional environment.

Assume that two “2 dimensional creatures” are living on the surface of two pieces of paper resting on a desktop.

Also, assume the two creatures can view the surfaces of the other piece of paper, which are separated a pencil.

If the diameter of the pencil is increased, the curvature between the surfaces of the two pieces of paper will increase.

Each of these creatures, when viewing the other piece of paper will only perceive the two-dimensional translation of the three-dimensional curvature generated by the pencil.

Therefore, each will view the distance between two points on the surface of the other as shorter since they will view that distance as a two-dimensional translation of a three-dimensional curvature in the surface of the paper.  Therefore each will measure the distance between them on their piece of paper as being longer as the diameter of the pencil increases then they would if they viewed it on the other piece.

Similarly, because three-dimensional beings could only “view” a three-dimensional translation of a “curvature” or displacement in four *spatial* dimension caused by the relative motion of a reference frame they will measure distance or length in them as being longer than they would be if viewed as an observer who is in relative motion to it.

This is the mechanism responsible for the relativistic properties of length in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

The two-dimensional creatures in the earlier example will also notice that time is effected by a curvature in the surface of their paper.

Each of them will view the others “time” as moving slower because the three-dimensional curvature in the paper makes the distance between events longer than the two dimensional translation of that curvature. Therefore, it will take longer for events “move” through a curvature in three-dimensional space on the surface of the others piece of paper relative to the time it would take for it to move thought the two-dimensional translation of that curvature.

Earlier it was mentioned that time can be defined only being the measure or the “distance between” the sequential ordering of the causality of an event.

Therefore, according to that definition time will become dilated in reference frames that are in relative motion because the curvature generated in three-dimensional space by its motion will cause three-dimensional beings in that reference frame to view the distance between events to be longer in than it would be for an observer who is outside of it.  Therefore, they will view time in a reference frame that is in motion relative to them as moving slower than if they were in that reference frame.

As mentioned earlier article “Defining potential and kinetic energy?” showed both “gravity” and kinetic energy can be define in terms of a curvature in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension as well as a curvature in a space-time manifold.

However, this means that one can also define the foreshortening of the length of an object in a gravitational field in terms of the cord to the arc similar to how it was earlier derive in terms of the curvature caused by the kinetic energy of an object.  This is because the cord of an arc is always shorter than the arc itself and since three-dimensional beings can only observe the three-dimensional cord of an arc in four-dimensional space they would view the length of the objects to be shorter when viewed in relative motion or in a gravitational field.

However it would also provide a mechanism for why time dilated with gravitational field that is consistent with our observations of three-dimensional space.

Time would be dilated with respect to a reference frame that is external to a gravitational field because as mentioned earlier the length of the arc generated in three-dimensional space by a gravitational field or the kinetic energy of relative motion to be longer than the cord of that arc.  Therefore, the distance between events would be greater for an observer in those reference frames than for one who is outside of it.  However, this means an observer outside of those reference frames would measure the time between those events as being dilated with respect to an observer who is inside because the time required for objects to move between events in that reference frame will be longer.

This shows one can theoretically define a mechanism responsible for both the time dilation and foreshortening of the length associated with objects in relative motion or in a gravitational field based on physical observations of a three-dimensional environment that is fully consistent with the qualitative and quantitative predictions of relativity by assuming space is composed of four *spatial* dimensions.

However as was mentioned earlier a worldview based on the existence of four *spatial* dimension instead of four dimensional space-time has an advantage in that it also allows one to derive them by extrapolating the observable spatial properties of a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension instead of as Einstein did by extrapolating the unobservable property of time to a space-time dimension.

Later Jeff

Copyright 2012 Jeffrey O’Callaghan

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