However this may just be an illusion resulting from a lack of understanding of the quantum environment.

One of the fundament areas where this disconnect appears is in the probabilistic interpretation Schrödinger wave equation

However one could eliminate this disconnect if one could explain the causality of those probabilities in terms of a physical image based on the laws of classical physics similar to how we explain the causality of the movement of the planets around the sun in terms of a physical image of a curvature in space-time.

Granted this will not change the fact that one cannot use quantum mechanics to make precise predictions of future events but it would give us a physical reason why we cannot in terms of our classical understanding of causality.

One way of accomplishing this would be look at the physically observable properties of all quantum systems and determine if by applying the laws of causality in a classical environment one can explain the reason for the probabilities associated with Schrödinger’s equation.

For example in 1924 Louis de Broglie theorized that all quantum objects are physically composed of a wave as was verified by 1927 by Davisson and Germer) when he observed electrons diffracted by crystals.

However, the fact that no one has been able to physically connect the causality of those observable properties to the probabilities of all quantum systems does not change the fact that there must be one because if there wasn’t they could not interact with our environment to create the physically observable properties of the world upon which those probabilities are determined.
One reason for this failure may be due to the fact that those probability are related to the spatial not time dependent properties of the wave function.

If so one may be able to establish the connection by looking at it in terms of its spatial properties instead of the space-time ones associated with Einstein’s theories.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when defined the geometric properties of space-time in terms of the constant velocity of light because that provided a method of converting a unit of time in a space-time environment of unit of space in four *spatial* dimensions. Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative and qualitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

The fact that one can use Einsteinâ€s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases for assuming as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However doing so would have allowed Louis de Broglie to physically define the casualty of the quantum properties associated with Schrödinger equation in terms of a physical or spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension as was done in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007.

Briefly, that article showed the quantized properties of energy/mass are the result of a resonant system formed by a matter “wave” on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to fourth “spatial” dimension. This is because it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a three-dimensional environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in one made up of four.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimension thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital. This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

However, the oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established on a surface of a three-dimensional space manifold.

Yet the classical laws of three-dimensional space tell us the energy of resonant systems can only take on the discontinuous or discreet energies associated with their fundamental or harmonic of their fundamental frequency.

Additionally it also tells us why in terms of the physical properties four dimensional space-time or four *spatial* dimensions an electron cannot fall into the nucleus is because, as was shown in that article all energy is contained in four dimensional resonant systems. In other words the energy released by an electron “falling” into it would have to manifest itself in terms of a resonate system. Since the fundamental or lowest frequency available for a stable resonate system in either four dimensional space-time or four spatial dimension corresponds to the energy of an electron it becomes one of the fundamental energy units of the universe.

However, these are the similar to the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass in that they can only take on the discontinuous or discreet energies associated with the formula E=hv where “E” equals the energy of a particle “h” equal Planck’s constant “v” equals the frequency of its wave component.

In other words Louis de Broglie would have been able to physicality connect the properties of his particle waves to the quantum mechanical properties of Schrödinger equation in terms of the discrete incremental energies associated with a resonant system in four *spatial* dimensions if he had assume space was composed of it instead of four dimensional space-time.

Yet it also would have allowed him to define the physical boundaries of a quantum system in terms of the geometric properties of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example in classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of a piece of paper is confined to that surface. However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space.

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the spatial boundaries associated with a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007.

As mentioned earlier in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 showed all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However assuming the energy associated with Louis de Broglie particle wave is result of a displacement in four *spatial* dimension instead of four dimensional space-time as was done earlier would allow one to define a classical causality for quantum probabilities in terms the observable environment we inhabit.

Classical mechanics tell us that due to the continuous properties of waves the energy the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 associated with a quantum system would be distributed throughout the entire “surface” a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

For example Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a vibrating or oscillating ball on a rubber diaphragm would be disturbed over its entire surface while the magnitude of those vibrations would decrease as one move away from the focal point of the oscillations.

Similarly if the assumption that quantum properties of energy/mass are a result of vibrations or oscillations in a “surface” of three-dimensional space is correct then classical mechanics tell us that those oscillations would be distributed over the entire “surface” three-dimensional space while the magnitude of those vibrations would be greatest at the focal point of the oscillations and decreases as one moves away from it.

As mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” shown a quantum particle is a result of a resonant structure formed on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet Classical Wave Mechanics tells us resonance would most probably occur on the surface of the rubber sheet were the magnitude of the vibrations is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point,

Similarly a particle would most probably be found were the magnitude of the vibrations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point.

This shows that one can define the causality of the probabilities associated Schrödinger wave equation in terms of the laws of causality associated with our observable environment by redefining them in terms of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words one can eliminate the disconnect between the probabilities associated his equation and a classical environment by defining their causality in terms of the laws of classical physics.

It should be remember Einsteinâ€s genius allows us to choose to define a quantum system in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in terms of the constant velocity of light. This interchangeability broadens the environment encompassed by his theories thereby giving us a new perspective on the probabilistic properties of a quantum environment and how they physically connected to our observable universe.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2016

The post The relevance of classical mechanics to a quantum environment. appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

But it will be easier if we first transpose or covert Einsteinâ€s space-time universe to one consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions because it will enable us to define the mechanism responsible how this emergence takes place in terms of a geometry which is directly related the position or spatial properties associated with quantum probabilities instead of their non-positional or temporal components.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he use the equation E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because that provided a method of converting a unit of time he associated with energy to a unit of space associated with position.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it allows for the defining of  a one to one quantitative and qualitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words the symmetry of the mathematics he use to define his space-time environment makes it possible to define the location of the quantum-classical boundary not only in terms of four dimensional space-time but also in four *spatial* dimensions thereby making it easier to understand how these two worlds interact.

For example the fact that one can use Einsteinâ€s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of four *spatial* dimensions allows one, as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 to derive all forms of energy including those associated with quantum systems in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This will allow as was shown in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 to understand of the quantum properties energy/mass by extrapolating the laws of classical wave mechanics in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in one consisting of four spatial dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give the wave properties of a quantum system the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the spatial boundaries associated with a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“

As mentioned earlier in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 showed all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However assuming energy is result of a displacement in four *spatial* dimension allows one to derive the most probable position of a particle in terms of its wave function by extrapolating the observations and classical laws associated with a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Classical mechanics tell us, due to the continuous properties of waves the energy the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 associated with a quantum system would be distributed throughout the entire “surface” a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

For example Classical mechanics tells us that the energy of a vibrating or oscillating ball on a rubber diaphragm would be disturbed over its entire surface while the magnitude of those vibrations would decrease as one move away from the focal point of the oscillations.

Similarly if the assumption that quantum properties of energy/mass are a result of vibrations or oscillations in a “surface” of three-dimensional space is correct then classical mechanics tell us those oscillations would be distributed over the entire “surface” three-dimensional space while the magnitude of those vibrations would be greatest at the focal point of the oscillations and decrease as one moves away from it.

As mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed a quantum mechanical system is a result of a resonant structure formed on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet Classical Wave Mechanics tells us resonance would most probably occur on the surface of the rubber sheet were the magnitude of the vibrations is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point,

Similarly if a particle as was shown earlier is a result of a resonant system formed in space it would most probably be found were the magnitude of the vibrations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point.

However this also defines how quantum probabilities can emerge from an classical interaction of energy/mass with the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions or four dimensional space-time while the same time eliminating the need for Quantum Decoherence because it shows that the different elements in the quantum superposition of a wavefunction are the result of the relative spatial orientation or position of an observer with respect to the its most probable position.

In other words it justifies the framework and intuition of the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics as an acceptable approximation of a classical environment without Quantum Decohernece.

It should be remember Einsteinâ€s genius allows us to choose to define a quantum system in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in terms of the constant velocity of light. This interchangeability broadens the environment encompassed by his theories by making them applicable to both the spatial as well as the time properties of our universe thereby giving us a new perspective on the causality of the quantum mechanical interaction.

Later Jeff

Copyright 2015 Jeffrey O’Callaghan 

The post Do we really need Quantum Decoherence? appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

In other words in a quantum system Schrödinger wave equation plays the role of Newtonian laws in that it predicts the future position or momentum of a particle in terms of a probability distribution by assuming that it simultaneously exists everywhere in three-dimensional space. 

This accentuates difference between quantum and classical mechanics because it derives the evolution of a particle in terms of it being in one place both before and after a measurement was taken whereas quantum mechanics derives its finial resting place in terms of an infinite number of possible starting points.

However one may be able to reconcile these two conflicting concepts by observing how matter and energy interact in terms of the classical properties of space-time.

But it will be easier if we first transpose or covert Einstein’s space-time universe to one consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions.

This is because it will allow us to define the mechanism responsible for the superpositioning of particles it in terms of a geometry which is directly related their position or spatial properties instead of its non-positional or temporal components.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he use the equation E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because that provided a method of converting a unit of space-time associated with energy to unit of space associated with position.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

However the fact that one can use Einsteinâ€s equations to qualitatively and quantitatively redefine the curvature in space-time he associated with energy in terms of four *spatial* dimensions is one bases for assuming, as was done in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 that all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This will allow as the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 to understand the physicality of the quantum properties energy/mass by extrapolating the laws of classical wave mechanics in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in one consisting of four spatial dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold to oscillate spatially with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established space.

Therefore, these oscillations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold would meet the requirements mentioned above for the formation of a resonant system or “structure” in four-dimensional space if one extrapolated them to that environment. 

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its fundamental or a harmonic of its fundamental frequency.

Hence, these resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions would be responsible for the discrete quantized energy associated with the quantum mechanical systems.

Yet it also allows one to define the boundary of a quantum system in terms of the geometric properties of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example in classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the spatial boundaries associated with a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“

As mentioned earlier in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 showed all forms of energy can be derived in terms of a spatial displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However assuming its energy is result of a displacement in four *spatial* dimension allows one to derive the the most probable position of a particle in terms of its wave function by extrapolating the observations and classical laws associated with a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Classical mechanics tell us that due to the continuous properties of waves the energy the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” associated with a quantum system would be distributed throughout the entire “surface” a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

For example Classical mechanics tells us that the energy of a vibrating or oscillating ball on a rubber diaphragm would be disturbed over its entire surface while the magnitude of those vibrations would decease as one move away from the focal point of the oscillations. 

Similarly if the assumption that quantum properties of energy/mass are a result of vibration or oscillations in a “surface” of three-dimensional space is correct then classical mechanics tell us that those oscillations would be distributed over the entire “surface” three-dimensional space while the magnitude of those vibrations would be greatest at the focal point of the oscillations and decreases as one moves away from it.

As mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” shown a quantum mechanical system is a result of a resonant structure formed on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet Classical Wave Mechanics tells us resonance would most probably occur on the surface of the rubber sheet were the magnitude of the vibrations is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point,

Similarly a particle would most probably be found were the magnitude of the vibrations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point.

In other words a particle appears to be superpositioned because its wave energy is distributed in probabilistic manner throughout the entire universe.

This suggests the reason why particles appear to be superpositioned is not due to the mathematical probabilities associated with Schrödinger wave equation but due to a classical interaction of the wave properties of a quantum system with the  geometry of a universe of a consisting either four dimensional space-time or four *spatial* or time dimension.

It should be remember Einsteinâ€s genius allows us to choose to define a quantum system in either a space-time environment or one consisting of four *spatial* dimension when he defined the geometry of space-time in terms of the constant velocity of light. This interchangeability broadens the environment encompassed by his theories by making them applicable to both the spatial as well as the time properties of our universe thereby giving us a new perspective on the causality of the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan  2015

The post A classical explanation of Quantum Superposition appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

However the reason may be because gravity is not propagated by a particle such as a photon but by field properties of space.

The currently accepted view among most cosmologist and physicist is that all forces mediated by particles.  This viewpoint is support the success the Standard Model of Particle Physics has had in explaining and predicting the observed properties of electromagnetic energy, weak, and strong nuclear forces in terms of particles.  It makes very accurate and verifiable predictions of the nature and causality of those forces in terms of particle interactions.

However it falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions because it cannot or does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation as described by General Relativity.  This is because Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity derives gravity in terms of a continuous curvature in the field properties of four-dimensional space-time and not in terms of the discontinuous properties of the quantum.

This fact makes it extremely difficult to conceptually integrate them because something that is discontinuous cannot be by definition continuous.
However it may be possible to integrate gravity with the particle properties of the forces defined in the Standard Model if instead of assuming they are propagated by particles one assumes that the particle properties of all forces are propagated by the fields.

It is easier to explain the mechanism responsible for creating the gravity or quantum of gravitational force by redefine Einstein’s space-time universe into one consisting of only four *spatial* dimensions.

(The reason will become obvious latter in the article)

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used he used equation of E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to defined gravity in terms geometric properties of space-time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his space-time universe to a unit of space.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

However it allows one to define a physical mechanism that would responsible creating a particle or quanta of space-time in terms of the field properties of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed it is possible to explain the discontinuous properties of space by extrapolating the laws classical resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a continuous “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its resonant or a harmonic of its resonant frequency

Therefore these discrete or quantized energy of resonant systems in a field consisting of four *spatial* dimensions would be responsible for the particle characteristics the standard model associates with the propagation of gravity electromagnetic energy, weak, and strong nuclear forces.

However, it does not explain how or why we observed them in terms of discontinuous properties of a particle instead of the continuous properties of a field as the above theoretical model and Einstein Theories predicts we should.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension defines the mechanism responsible for the quantization of the field properties of space associated with energy/mass in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“.

Quantum mechanics defines the smallest possible unit of space and increment of energy in terms of Planck’s length “h” while defining the size of an individual quantum of force in terms of the equation E = h c / L. 

In other words the physical size of the fundamental quanta of all forces is not the same as is suggest by the Standard Model of Particle Physics and quantum mechanics but varies with their energy and the higher energy there is the smaller its volume.

However this means the length and therefore the volume of a Graviton would be considerably larger when compared to the volume associated with a quantum unit of the electromagnetic weak or strong forces because of its relatively low energy content with respect to theirs.

The theoretical evidence to support this conclusion is provided by the fact that the energy of a quantum of force is mathematically defined by its frequency and wavelength.  This means a higher energy particle with a shorter wavelength would occupy a smaller volume than lower energy ones.

Observational evidence can be found in the fact that quanta of the strong and weak forces can only be observe in particle accelerators capable of generating the energy required to magnify their environment enough to allow for us to observe them.

In other words the reason why we can observe quanta of the strong and weak forces is because we can create experimental apparatus that can magnify the environment to the point where they become visible.

While a quantum of a less energetic electromagnetic force associated with visible light is observable because it size is comparable to the size to the sensing apparatus in the cones and rods in the eyes use to detect it.

However electromagnetic forced is about a million billion billion billion billion (10^42) times stronger than gravitational.

Using the same logic one reason why we have been unable to observe a Graviton may be because we have been unable to construct an observing platform a million billion billion billion billion (10^42) larger than the one need to observe quanta of electromagnetic force of the same strength. 

However the relatively large size of a Graviton or an individual quanta of gravity predicted by quantum mechanics suggests another reason why we have been unable to observe it.

We know from observations that gravitational forces act on much smaller scales than the physical size of an individual Graviton predicted by quantum mechanics. However this means that we should observe that the orbital energy of objects should also be quantized.

Some may disagree by saying that the size of the quantum unit of gravitational force is too small relative to the mass of objects that the effect of its quantization would be unobservable.

However the equation that defines the size of a Gravitron ( E = h c / L ) tells us that it would relatively large with respect to the orbits of many of the observable planets.  Additionally the force of gravity is always attractive or only acts in one direction therefore the effects of its quantization would be cumulative

In other words if gravity is propagated by the graviton the cumulative effects over the life of the universe should be observable with the increased sensitivity and high resolution of modern instrumentation.

Therefore one must assume that Einstein was correct we he defined gravity in terms of its field and not the quantum properties of space-time because if it was propagated by the Graviton then quantum mechanics tells us due to its relative large size that we should have observed discrete regions of space where orbits of stars planets and moons are not found.

This strongly suggest the reason why we have been unable to observe a Graviton is because gravity is not propagated it but by the field properties of space.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013 

The post Finding the graviton appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

However finding a way of conceptually integrating them has proven to be extremely difficult for two reasons

The first is that it is impossible to derive a mechanism to explain and predict the continuous properties of four dimensional space-time in terms of quantum mechanics because something that is discontinuous cannot by definition be continuous. 

However one can derive the them in terms of the continuous properties of space-time because something that is continuous by definition can be divided into smaller units. 

Yet the other reason why it is so difficult is because Quantum mechanics defines its domain in terms of the spatial properties of probabilities while Einstein theories define it in terms of the continuous geometric properties of time.

This suggest we may be able to integrate them if we could find a way defining them in the same terms.   In other words redefining the space-time environment of Relativity in terms of the spatial properties of quantum mechanics or redefine the continuous properties of space-time in terms of the quantum properties of quantum mechanics.

However the only realistic option is to redefine the space-time environment of Relativity in terms of the spatial properties of quantum mechanics because as was mentioned earlier it is impossible to derive a mechanism to explain and predict the continuous properties of four dimensional space-time in terms of quantum mechanics because something that is discontinuous cannot by definition be continuous. 

Fortunately Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he used he used the velocity of light to define its geometric properties of space time because it allows one to convert a unit of time in his space-time universe to an equivalent unit of space in four *spatial* dimensions.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant means it is possible to defined a one to one correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

In other words by defining the geometric properties of a space-time universe in terms of mass/energy and the constant velocity of light he provided a qualitative and quantitative means of redefining his space-time universe in terms of the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

However as mentioned earlier doing so would also allow one to define a physical mechanism responsible for creating a quantum of space-time in terms of the existence of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 showed it is possible to explain the quantum properties of energy/mass by extrapolating the laws of classical resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on the continuous “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would be meet by a matter wave in four spatial dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a continuous “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its resonant or a harmonic of its resonant frequency

Therefore the discrete or quantized energy of resonant systems in a continuous four dimensional environment would be responsible for the discrete quantized energy quantum mechanics associated with energy/mass.

However, it does not explain the mechanism responsible for quantizing the space containing energy/mass

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is responsible for the quantization of four-dimensional space because it would result in the formation of discrete or quantized volumes associated with the observed quantum properties of energy/mass.

In other words defining space in terms of four *spatial* dimensions allows one to conceptually the integrate the discontinuous quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass into the continuous field properties four-dimensional space in terms of a resonant system created by its wave properties.

Physicists should remember it is impossible to derive a mechanism to explain and predict the continuous properties of four dimensional space-time in terms of quantum mechanics because something that is discontinuous cannot by definition be continuous.  However one can understand as was shown above the quantum mechanical properties of space in terms of the continuous properties of space-time because something that is continuous by definition can be divided  into smaller units.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2013

The post A quantum of space-time appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

We have shown throughout this blog and its companion book “The Reality of the Fourth *Spatial* Dimension” there would be many theoretical advantages to defining space in terms four *spatial* dimensions instead of four-dimensional space-time.

One of them is that it would allow one to understand the classical origins of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle by extrapolating observations of a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

For example In the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 it was shown it is possible to understand its quantum mechanical properties by extrapolating the laws of classical resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would be meet by a matter wave in four *spatial* dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital. This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its resonant or a harmonic of its resonant frequency

Therefore the discrete or quantized energy of resonant systems in a continuous form of energy/mass would be responsible for the discrete quantized quantum mechanical properties of particles.

However, it did not explain how the boundaries of a particleâ€s resonant structure are defined.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space.

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the geometric boundaries of the “box” containing the resonant system the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” associated with a particle.

However if this is true that one should be able to explain why the other properties of quantum systems are what they are in the same terms

For example in quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle asserts that there a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position x and momentum p, can be simultaneously known.

However, Quantum Mechanics mathematically defines the position and momentum of a particle in terms of non-dimensional point.

Therefore according to the above concepts there would be an uncertainty in determining its position because that point could be found anywhere within the volume of the “box” mentioned above.

Similarly there would be an uncertainty in measuring its momentum, again because quantum mechanics defines movement in terms of a non dimensional point.  Therefore before one could determine a particle’s momentum one would have to know the exact position of the “end” points one use to measure its velocity.  However, as mentioned above that non dimension point representing a particle could be found anywhere in the box containing the resonant structure that define a particle in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?“  Therefore one could not determine its exact velocity and momentum because there will always be an uncertainty as to where the non dimensional point representing a particle is in the box when the measurement was taken

The reason why one cannot simultaneously measure both with complete accuracy is because the act of measure its momentum or position requires one to access different segments the “box” containing the one dimensional point particle.

For example if one wants to make the most accurate measurement possible of its momentum internal to the box one would have to measure the time it took for it to transverse a given segment of it.  However this means that one could not determine its position because it would be changing through the entire time that it took it to transverse that portion of the box.

However if one wanted to make the most accurate measurement possible of its position internal to the box it would have to be stationary with respect to the box’s geometry meaning that one could not determine its monument because it would not be moving.  Since these two measurements required one to access different segments of a particles geometry they are mutually exclusive. 

Therefore one cannot simultaneously measure a particle position x and momentum p with complete accuracy.

This defines in terms of classical mechanics why there is a limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position x and momentum p, can be simultaneously known.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2012

The post A classical interpretation of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principal appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

One is that it would allow for understanding of the physical significance of Planck’s constant in terms of the laws of classical physics.

In the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 it was shown it is possible to explain and predict the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass by extrapolating the laws of classical resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would be meet by a matter wave in an environment of four *spatial* dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its resonant or a harmonic of its resonant frequency

This means that one can theoretically derive the quantum mechanical properties of Schrödinger’s wave function in terms of the physicality of resonant properties of four *spatial* dimensions if one assumes as is done here that its mathematical properties are representative of wave moving on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However it also gives one the ability to understand the physical meaning of Planck’s constant or 6.626068 × 10^-34 (kg*m2/s) by extrapolating the laws of classical physics in a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

In classical physics, a point on the two-dimensional surface of paper is confined to that surface.  However, that surface can oscillate up or down with respect to three-dimensional space. 

Similarly an object occupying a volume of three-dimensional space would be confined to it however, it could, similar to the surface of the paper oscillate “up” or “down” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

The confinement of the “upward” and “downward” oscillations of a three-dimension volume with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension is what defines the geometric boundaries or the “box” containing the wave or wave function the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 associated with a particle. 

Planck’s constant is one of fundamental components of Quantum Physics and along with Heisenbergâ€s Uncertainty Principle it defines the uncertainty in the ability to measure more than one quantum variable at a time.  For example attempting to measure an elementary particleâ€s position (â–²x) to the highest degree of accuracy leads to an increasing uncertainty in being able to measure the particleâ€s momentum (â–²p) to an equally high degree of accuracy.  Heisenbergâ€s Principle is typically written mathematically as â–²xâ–²p  ³ h / 2  where h represents Planck constant

As mentioned earlier the resonant wave that corresponds to the quantum mechanical wave function defined in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” predicts that a particle will most likely be found in the quantum mechanical “box” whose dimensions would be defined by that resonant wave.  However quantum mechanics treats particles as a one dimensional points and because it could be anywhere in it there would be an inherent uncertainty involved in determining the exact position of a particle in that “box”.

For examine the formula give above ( â–²xâ–²p  ³ h / 2 ) tells us that uncertainty of measuring the exact position of the point in that “box” defined by its wavefunction would be equal to â–²xâ–²p  ³ h / 2.   However because we are only interested in determining its exact position we can eliminate all references to its momentum.

However if we eliminate the momentum component from the uncertainty in a particle position become 6.626068 × 10^-34 meters or Planck’s constant.

As mentioned earlier the uncertainty involved in determining the exact position of a particle is because it is impossible to determine were in the “box” defined earlier the quantum mechanical point representing that particle is located.  However as mentioned earlier Planck’s constant tells us that one cannot determine the position of a particle to an accuracy greater that 6.626068 × 10^-34.  This suggest that Planck constant 6.626068 × 10^-34 defines the physical parameters or dimensions of that “box” because it defines the parameters of where in a given volume of space a quantum particle can be found.

This shows how one can define and understand the physicality of Planck’s constant by extrapolating the laws of classical physics in three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension if one assumes as is done here that the quantum mechanical properties of the wave function are cause by a resonant structure in four *spatial* dimensions.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2012

The post The physical significance of Planck’s constant appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

In other words in a quantum system Schrödinger wave equation plays the role of Newtonian laws in that it predicts the future position or momentum of a electron in terms of a probability distribution.

However it may be possible to develop a classical understanding of why the four quantum numbers define the arrangement of electron in atoms by converting or transposing Einstein’s space-time universe to one made up of fourth *spatial* dimension.

The reason this is necessary is because the quantum numbers deal more with the spatial than the time properties of three-dimensional space therefore eliminating time will allow for a more direct application of classical laws to the solution.

Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he use the equation E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because it provided a method of converting a unit of time in a space time environment  to unit of space in four spatial dimensions.  Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

This should allow one to define the physicality of the Principal Quantum number (n),  the Angular Momentum “â„“”  (l), Magnetic (m) and Spin Quantum Number(+1/2 and -1/2) by extrapolating the laws of a classical Newtonian environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.
For example In the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 it was shown one can derive the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass by extrapolating the laws governing resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave moving on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical Newtonian environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in one consisting of four spatial dimensions

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold (the substance) the ability to oscillate spatially with respect to it thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital. This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

Therefore, these oscillations on a “surface” of three-dimensional space, would meet the requirements mentioned above for the formation of a resonant system or “structure” in space.

Observations of a three-dimensional environment show the energy associated with resonant system can only take on the incremental or discreet values associated with a fundamental or a harmonic of the fundamental frequency of its environment.

Similarly the energy associated with resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions could only take on the incremental or discreet values associated a fundamental or a harmonic of the fundamental frequency of its environment.

These resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions are responsible for the incremental or discreet energy associated with quantum mechanical systems.

However the fact that one can derive the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass by extrapolating the resonant properties of a wave in three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension means that one should be able to derive the quantum numbers that define the properties of the atomic orbitals in those same terms.

As mentioned earlier there are four quantum numbers.  The first the Principal Quantum number is designated by the letter “n”, the second or Angular Momentum by the letter “â„“” the third or Magnetic by the letter “m” and the last is the Spin or “s” Quantum Number.

In three-dimensional space the frequency or energy of a resonant system is defined by the vibrating medium and the boundaries of its environment.

For example the resonant energy of a standing wave generated when a violin string plucked is determined in part by the length and tension of its strings.

Similarly the energy of the resonant system the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” associated with atom orbitals would be defined by the “length” or circumference of the three-dimensional volume it is occupying and the tension on the space it is occupying.

Therefore the physicality of “n” or the principal quantum number would be defined by the fundamental vibrational energy of three-dimensional space that article associated with the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass.

The circumference of its orbital would correspond to length of the individual strings on a violin while the tension on its spatial components would be created by the electrical attraction of the positive charge of the proton.

Therefore the integer representing the first quantum number would correspond to the physical length associated with the wavelength of its fundamental resonant frequency.

However, classical mechanics tells us that each environment has a unique fundamental resonant frequency which is not shared by others.

The reason an electron does not fall into the nucleus is because as was shown in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” all energy is contained in four dimensional resonant systems.  Therefore the fundamental frequency or wavelength of four dimensional space would define the minimum energy and therefore the physical size of the first quantum orbital.

This defines physicality of the environment associated with the first quantum number.  (The reason why it is unique for each subdivision of electron orbitals will be developed later) . Additionally observations tell us that resonance can only occur in an environment that contains an integral or half multiples of the wavelength associated with its resonant frequency and that the energy content of its harmonics are always greater than those of its fundamental resonate energy.

This allows one to derive the physicality of the second “â„“” or azimuth quantum number in terms of how many harmonics of the fundament frequency a given orbital can support. 

In the case of a violin the number of harmonics a given string can support is in part determined by its length.   As the length increase so does the number of harmonics because its greater length can support a wider verity of frequencies and wavelengths.  However, as mentioned earlier each additional harmonic requires more energy than the one before it.  Therefore there is a limit to the number of harmonics that a violin string can support which is determined in part by its length.

Similarly each quantum orbital can only support harmonics of their fundamental frequency that will “fit” with the circumference of the volume it occupies.

For example the first harmonic of the 1s orbital would have energy that would be greater than that of the first because as mentioned earlier the energy associated with a harmonic of a resonant system is always greater than that of its fundamental frequency.  Therefore it would not “fit” into the volume of space enclosed by the 1s orbital because of its relatively high energy content.  Therefore second quantum number of the first orbital will be is 0. 

However it also defines why in terms of classical wave mechanics the number of suborbital associated with the second quantum number increases as one move outward from the nucleus because a larger number of harmonics will be able to “fit” with the circumference of the orbitals as they increase is size.

This also shows that the reason the orbitals are filled in the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s is because the energy of the 3d or second harmonic of the third orbital is higher in energy than the energy of the fundamental resonant frequency of the 4th orbital.  In other words classical wave mechanics tells us the energy of the harmonics of the higher quantum orbitals may be less than that of the energy of the fundamental frequency of preceding one so their harmonics would “fit” into circumference of the lower orbitals

The third or Magnetic (m) quantum number physical defines how the energy associated with each harmonic in each quantum orbital is physically oriented with respect to axis of three-dimensional space.

For example it tells us that the individual energies of 3 “p” orbitals are physically distributed along each of the three axis of three-dimensional space.

The physicality of the fourth quantum or spin number has nothing to do with the resonant properties of space however as was shown in the article “Pauliâ€s Exclusion Principal: a classical interpretation” Feb. 15, 2012 one can derive its physicality by extrapolating the laws of a three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

That article it was shown all forms of energy including the angular momentum of particles can be defined in terms of a displacement in a “surface* of three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

In three-dimensional space one can use the right hand rule to define the direction of the angular momentum of charged particles.  Similarly the direction of that displacement with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension can be understood in term of the right hand rule.  In other words the angular momentum or energy of an electron with a positive spin would be directed “upward” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension while one with a negative spin would be associated with a “downwardly” directed one.
Therefore one can define the physically of the fourth or spin quantum number in terms of the direction a “surface” of three-dimensional space is displaced with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  For example if one defines energy of an electron with a spin of -1/2 in terms of a downward directed displacement one would define a +1/2 spin as an upwardly directed one.

The physical reason why only two electrons can occupy a quantum orbital and why they have slightly different energies can also be derived by extrapolating the laws of a classical three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

There a two ways to fill a bucket.  One is by pushing it down and allowing the water to flow over its edge or by using a cup to raise it to the level of the buckets rim.

Similarly there would be two ways fill an atomic orbital according to the concepts presented in that article.  One would be by creating a downward displacement on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* to the energy level associated with the electron while the other would create an upward displacement in that surface.

However the energy required by each method will not be identical for the same reason that it requires slightly less energy to fill a bucket by pushing it down below the surface than it would be to fill one that was above it because the one above the surface would be at a higher gravitational potential.

However it also explains why no two quantum particles can have the same quantum number because observations of water show that there is a direct relationship between the magnitudes of a displacement in its surface to the magnitude of the force resisting that displacement. 

Similarly the magnitude of a displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by two quantum particles with similar quantum numbers would greater than that caused by a single one.  Therefore, they will repel each other and seek the lower energy state associated with a different quantum number because the magnitude of the force resisting the displacement will be less for them than if they had the same number.

This shows how one can define a physical model for the energy distribution with an atom by extrapolating the deterministic laws of a classical three-dimensional environment to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2012

The post Quantum numbers: a classical interpretation appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

However, this may be because the wavefunction defines existence in terms of the spatial properties of matter while Einstein defines it terms of its time or space-time properties.

This suggests that one may be able to explain what happens to the wave function when a measurement is made if one could convert or transpose time in Einstein’s space-time universe to its spatial equivalent in four *spatial* dimensions.
Einstein gave us the ability to do this when he use the equation E=mc^2 and the constant velocity of light to define the geometric properties of space-time because it provided a method of converting a unit of time in space-time to unit of space in four spatial dimensions. Additionally because the velocity of light is constant he also defined a one to one quantitative correspondence between his space-time universe and one made up of four *spatial* dimensions.

For example the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?

” Oct. 4, 2007 showed one can physical derive the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass by extrapolating the laws of classical wave mechanics in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to  a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Briefly it showed the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would occur in one consisting of four spatial dimensions.

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These oscillations would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established space.

Therefore, these oscillations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold would meet the requirements mentioned above for the formation of a resonant system or “structure” in four-dimensional space if one extrapolated them to that environment. 

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete or quantized values associated with its fundamental or a harmonic of its fundamental frequency.

Hence, these resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions would be responsible for the discrete quantized energy associated with the quantum mechanical systems.

(In the article “The geometry of quarks” Mar. 15, 2009  the internal structure of quarks, a fundament component of particles was derived in terms of a resonant interaction between a continuous energy/mass component of space and the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions)

However classical mechanics tell us that because of the continuous properties of waves the energy the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” associated with a quantum system would be distributed throughout the entire “surface” a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

For example putting a vibrating or oscillating ball on rubber diaphragm will create a displacement which will be disturbed over its entire surface while the magnitude of that displacement will decrease as one moves away from the point of contact.

However, this means if one extrapolates the mechanics of the rubber diaphragm to a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold one must assume the oscillations associated with each individual quantum system must be disturbed thought the entire universe while spatial displacement associated with its energy defined in the in the article “Defining energy?” Nov 27, 2007 would decrease as one move away from its position.  This means there would be a non-zero probability they could be found anywhere in our three-dimensional environment because, as mentioned earlier the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” shown a quantum mechanical system is a result of a resonant structure formed on the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Yet Classical Wave Mechanics also tells us a resonance would most probably occur on the surface of the rubber sheet were the magnitude of the vibrations is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point,

Similarly an observer would most probably find a quantum system were the magnitude of the vibrations in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold is greatest and would diminish as one move away from that point. 

However as mentioned earlier this is exactly what is predicted by Quantum mechanics in that one can define a particle’s exact position or momentum only in terms of the probabilistic values associated with its wave function.

Yet it also explains in terms of the observable reality of our environment what happens to the wave function when a measurement is made because to make one energy must be redirected towards the measurement instrument.  In other words the wave function does not collapse but is physically redirected towards the observing instrument at the point of observation and would continue on that path until another observation is made.

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2012

The post Solving the Measurement Problem appeared first on Unifying Quantum and Relativistic Theories.

One is that it would allow one to derive a physical link between gravity and the strong and weak forces by extrapolating the classical laws governing resonance in a three-dimensional environment to a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

(Louis de Broglie was the first to theorize that all particle and forces have a matter wave component.  His theory was confirmed by the discovery of electron diffraction by crystals in 1927 by Davisson and Germer;) 
In the article “The “Relativity” of four spatial dimensions” Dec. 1, 2007 it was shown that one can derive gravity in terms of a continuous curvature or displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension in a manner that makes prediction identical to those of General Relativity.

One of the advantages to using this theoretical approach is that it would allow one to derive a physical link between it and the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass because as was shown in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007 one can derive its quantum mechanical properties in terms of a resonant system generated by the displacements associated with a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  

Briefly it was shown the four conditions required for resonance to occur in a classical environment, an object, or substance with a natural frequency, a forcing function at the same frequency as the natural frequency, the lack of a damping frequency and the ability for the substance to oscillate spatial would be meet by a matter wave in an environment consisting of four *spatial* dimensions. 

The existence of four *spatial* dimensions would give a matter wave the ability to oscillate spatially on a “surface” between a third and fourth *spatial* dimensions thereby fulfilling one of the requirements for classical resonance to occur.

These displacements or oscillations with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension would be caused by an event such as the decay of a subatomic particle or the shifting of an electron in an atomic orbital.  This would force the “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension to oscillate with the frequency associated with the energy of that event.

The oscillations caused by such an event would serve as forcing function allowing a resonant system or “structure” to be established in four *spatial* dimensions.

Classical mechanics tells us the energy of a resonant system can only take on the discrete quantized values associated with their fundamental or a harmonic of their fundamental frequency.

Similarly these resonant systems in four *spatial* dimensions would be responsible for the quantum mechanical properties energy/mass because they could only take on the values associated with fundamental or a harmonic of its fundamental frequency.

Earlier it was mentioned that one can define gravitational energy in terms of a continuous curvature in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

However the article “Embedded dimensions” Oct. 22, 2007 also showed it is possible to define all forms of energy including electrical in terms of a displacement in a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This would allow on to define a physical link between gravity, the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass, and the weak force can be understood by integrating their geometric properties to the one responsible for the fractional charges of quarks as was done in the article “The geometry of quarks” Mar. 15, 2009.

Briefly it was showed one can derive the 2/3 fractional charge of the Up, Charm and Top and the 1/3 charge of UP/Down, Charm/Strange and Top/Bottom and 1/3 charge of The Down, Strange and Bottom in terms of the geometry of four spatial dimensions. 

However, we as three-dimensional beings can only observe three of the four *spatial* dimensions.  Therefore, the energy associated with a displacement in its “surface” with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension will be observed by us as being directed along that “surface”.  However, because two of the three-dimensions we can observe are parallel to that surface we will observe it to have 2/3 of the total energy associated with that displacement and we will observe the other 1/3 as being directed along the signal dimension that is perpendicular to that surface. 

This means the 2/3 fractional charge of the Up, Charm and Top may be related to the energy directed along a “surface” of a displaced three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a four *spatial* dimension while the -1/3 charge of The Down, Strange and Bottom may be associated with the energy that is directed perpendicular to that “surface”.

The reason why quarks come in three configurations or colors with a fractional charge of 1/3 or 2/3 may be because, as was shown in the article “Embedded dimensions” Oct. 4, 2007 there are three ways the individual axis of three-dimensional space can be oriented with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  Therefore, the configuration or “colors” of each quark may be related to how its energy is distributed in three-dimensional space with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

However, it also explains why it takes three quarks of different “colors” to form a particle because, as mentioned earlier one can define a particle in terms of a resonant system on a “surface” a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  If the colors of each quark represent the central axis associated with its charge then to form a stable resonate system would require three quarks that have different central axis to balance its energy with respect to the axes of three-dimensional space.  A particle could not exist if two quarks have the same central axis or color because it would cause an energy imbalance along that axis.  Therefore, a particle consisting of anything but quarks of three different colors would not be stable. 

The weak force manifests itself in the transmutation of a quark from one flavor or color to another when they decay with emission or absorption of W and Z bosons.

However this is what one would expect if their stability was related to, as shown above to the geometric configuration of their central axis because the only thing that distinguishes their color or flavor is how their central axes is oriented with respect to four *spatial* dimensions.  If the individual quark components of a particle were not in the lowest energy configuration they would rotate around that axis until they were. 

However, as mentioned earlier a quarkâ€s color is related to how its central axis is oriented with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.  Therefore the weak force could be defined as the energy required to produce the transmutation or the change of a quark from one flavor or color to another by the rotation of its central axis with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This suggests that the stability of the energy/mass components of particles such as a proton and neutrons are related to a resonant interaction of the displacements in components of three and fourth *spatial* dimensions. 

One can also understand why a “W” or “Z” boson is either emitted or absorbed during the transmutation quarks in terms of the particle properties of the resonant system defined earlier in the article “Why is energy/mass quantized?” Oct. 4, 2007

In other words the same mechanism responsible for the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass is also responsible for the particle properties of the forces associated with the “W” and “Z” boson.

However, the fact the resonant interaction between the components of three and four *spatial* dimensions is strong enough overcome the repulsive electrical energy of the two up Quarks in a proton also defines the causality of the strong force and the stability of a nucleus.

The strong force is a result of the spatial separation between the protons in a nucleus becoming small enough so the excess resonant binding energy associated with their dimensional properties can interact.  The sharing of this excess binding energy allows the up quark of one of the adjacent protons to be replaced with a down quark resulting in the formation of a neutron consisting of one up quark and two down quarks

However, the addition of a neutron to a nucleus adds the excess binding energy associated with its resonant system without the repulsive effects associated with the positive charge of a proton. 

Therefore, the existence of neutrons in a nucleus allows for creation of larger ones consisting of multiple positively charged protons because they add the binding energy associated with their resonant system without adding any repulsive electrical charge. 

Yet this indicates that the magnitude of the strong nuclear force would be related to the size of the nucleus. 

The size or diameter of a nucleus increases as is the atomic weight increases.

However, after a certain atomic weight is reached a nucleus will become physically too large for the individual resonant “structures” associated with the protons and neutrons to uniformly share the energy required to maintain its structure.  This will result in that nucleus expelling the energy/mass required to reduce its physical size to a point where a stable nucleonic structure can be maintained.  Therefore, any nucleus that is physically larger than this critical value will be radioactive.

Additionally, the nucleus of atoms that have an atomic weight less than the critical value would increase its weight and size by “absorbing” energy/mass from an external source.  This will result in increasing the size and atomic number of that nucleus.

This indicates that the effectiveness of the strong nuclear force in absorbing or emitting energy/mass would only be effective on length-scales of the atomic nucleus and would drop rapidly off as the distance from the nucleus increases.

This shows how one can derive the mechanism responsible for the quantum mechanical properties of energy/mass, the strong and weak forces by extrapolating the classical laws governing resonance in a three-dimensional environment to the oscillatory displacements associated with a matter wave on a “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

However as mentioned earlier the article “The “Relativity” of four spatial dimensions” Dec. 1, 2007  it was shown that one can also derive gravitational energy in terms of a displacement in a continuous “surface” of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension in a manner that makes prediction identical to those of general relativity.

Therefore One can establish a link between it, and the strong and weak forces in terms of the continuous properties of four *spatial* dimensions because of the fact that the matter wave defining the resonant system responsible for  the strong and weak forces is by definition continuous which means the geometry supporting it must also be continuous.  Therefore this define a link between them in terms of the continuous geometry of four *spatial* dimensions.

This demonstrates how one can derive a theoretical connection between the strong and weak forces and gravity in terms of the continuous geometric properties of a “surface” of a three-dimensional space with a fourth *spatial* dimension. 

Later Jeff

Copyright Jeffrey O’Callaghan 2011

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