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The Standard Cosmological Model of the Universe hypothesis the universe began as a small compact "ball" of mass that exploded producing a “big bang” and that the universe is expanding due to the aftermath of the "big bang" based, in part, on the frequency shifting of the spectral lines in EM radiation called the red shift.
Many astronomers have interpreted the red shift in electromagnetic radiation as an indication the galaxies are moving away from the earth and have calculated the rate of expansion of the universe based on the magnitude of this frequency shift. They have assumed the frequency shift of EM radiation coming from galaxies is entirely due to their velocity with respect to the earth.
However, the recent observation that universe contains a measurable quantity of Dark Matter indicates that this assumption may not be valid because it could interact with electromagnetic radiation to cause a frequency shift which would not be related to the expansion of the universe.
To understand how "Dark Matter" would affect the rate of expansion of the universe requires an understanding of how and why it could interact with it.
(It should be remember, we do agree with many cosmologists that the universe is presently in an overall state of expansion however, we disagree with the currently accepted rates at which this expansion is occurring and define this expansion not in terms of a "big bang" but in terms of cycle of expansions and contractions in four *spatial* dimension.)
Chapter one postulated the universe is composed of a continuous non-quantized form of mass and four *spatial* dimensions instead of four-dimensional space-time.
Chapter two derived the properties photon or electromagnetic radiation in terms of the discrete energies associated with a classically resonating "system" formed in space by oscillations in a continuous non-quantized mass component of space.
Chapter three defined the propagation of electromagnetic energy in terms of oscillations in a continuous non-quantized form of mass caused by a matter wave moving on the "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension at the velocity of light.
Therefore, Chapters two and three define a common mechanism responsible for the particle/wave duality of EM radiation in terms of the classical laws of physics, the existence of four *spatial* dimensions and a continuous non-quantized form of mass.
(Louis de Broglie was the first to theorize that all particles have a wave component. His theories were confirmed by the discovery of electron diffraction by crystals in 1927 by Davisson and Germer. However, this means there must be a continuous non-quantized medium for it to be propagated on because even the smallest possible particle must have a wave component.)
These oscillations in a continuous non-quantized form of mass responsible for generating a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold would be analogous to the oscillations associated with a wave on the surface of water.
The trough of a water wave displaces a volume of water below its surface with air while the peak of a water wave displaces the air above its surface with water.
Similarly a "trough" of a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold would displace a continuous non-quantized form of mass "below" a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension with a component of four-dimensional space while a "peak" of a matter wave would displace a "volume" of four-dimensional space above a "surface" with a component of three-dimensional space.
Chapter ten showed all forms of energy are a result of a displacement in a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.
Therefore, the sinusoidal displacements in a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by the "peaks" and "troughs" of a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension would be responsible of the propagation of EM radiation.
However, a matter and water wave share another similarity in that they would both be affected by the interaction of their wave energy with the mass of the medium they are propagated on.
The frequency and energy content of a water wave decreases as it moves along the surface of the water due, in part, to its interaction with the inertial mass of the water which causes it to heat up. The greater the distance it travels on the water the greater the decrease in its frequency.
Similarly the frequency of a matter wave would decrease as it moved along a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension due to its interaction with a continuous non-quantized mass component of space. This would result in an increase the continuous non- quantized form of mass defined by the equation E=mc^2. The greater the distance it travels on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold the greater the decrease in its energy and frequency.
This "Tired Light" concept of the energy loss associated with the red shifting of photons by its interaction with space has been dismissed by many because no Compton scattering is observed in red shifted photons.
Compton scattering is caused by an interaction between high energy particles such as photons and electrons which results in the electron being given part of the energy (making it recoil), and a photon containing the remaining energy being emitted in a different direction from the original, so that the overall momentum of the system is conserved. If the photon still has enough energy left, the process may be repeated. This process would result in a scattering of the energy of a photon.
The reason why many astronomers believe the entire redshift of a galaxies is the result of its movement away from an observer is that classical theory of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic wave, cannot explain any shift in wavelength.
Therefore, if the red shift was caused by a particle interaction one should observed the Compton scattering of light that would be associated with a particle interaction. Since no Compton scattering is observed in the red shift coming from galaxie it is assumed by many astronomers it can only be caused by the movement of an object away from an observer.
However, as was shown in Chapters two and three a photon is a result of a resonant "system" generated by a matter wave in a continuous non-quantized form of mass moving on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.
Therefore, because a photon is made up of a matter wave in a continuous non-quantized form of mass a portion of the energy loss associates with a redshift may be the result in a conversion of it energy of a matter wave to continuous non-quantized form of mass.
The conclusion the energy loss of red shifted light is converted to a continuous non-quantized form of mass is supported the experimental verification that energy in itself is not quantized because a photon can have any frequency and therefore any energy greater than zero or less than infinity. Additionally, the equation defining the relationship between mass and energy, E=m*c^2, also indicates that mass is completely convertible to one or more photons with energies greater than zero or less than infinity. Therefore, the conversion of mass to energy must occur on a continuous basis to support the continuous properties of both mass and energy.
Chapter two showed a continuous non-quantized form of mass is responsible for the physical properties associated with spatial volume.
Therefore, the increase in the quantity of a continuous non-quantized form of mass will result in that volume of three-dimensional space physically "expanding" "towards" a fourth *spatial* dimension.
This means that a portion of the observed expansion of the universe associated with the energy loss of red shifted EM radiation may not be due to the recessional velocity of galaxies but instead may be due an increase in the physical volume of three-dimensional space with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by an increase in a continuous non-quantized form of mass.
However, the rate of expansion of the universe due to a conversion the energy of EM radiation to a continuous non-quantized form of mass would be related to the non-linear formula of E=mc^2.
Therefore, if this mechanism does define one of the expansive components of the universe the rate of the expansion would be less than that predicted by many cosmologists because one of those components would be defined by the non-linear formula of E=mc^2 and not by the linear recessional velocity of galaxies. This would result in a reduction of rate of expansion of the universe predicted by the assumption that the entire energy loss of EM radiation is due to the recessional velocity of galaxies.
(The non-linear aspect of this expansion caused by the creation of a continuous non-quantized form of mass would have to be added to the linear expansion caused by the recessional velocity of a galaxies is responsible for non-linear or accelerative properties associated with Dark Energy.).
However, it should be remember we are not saying that the universe is not expanding, but we are saying that magnitude of the expansion may be less than predict by many of today’s cosmologists.
Presently the universe appears to be in an overall state of expansion with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension, due to the recessional velocity of galaxies and the physical expansion of a volume of space caused by a conversion of the electromagnetic energy to a continuous non-quantized form of mass.
However someday this expansion will crease and it will enter a contraction phase.
This is primarily due to the mechanism defined earlier in which electromagnetic energy is converted to continuous non-quantized form of mass. This will result in increasing in the total mass content of the universe and causing the total gravitational contractive forces associated with that mass to increase.
The universe will begin to contract when the contractive forces associated with the increase mass of the universe exceeds the expansive forces associated with recessional velocity of the galaxies.
However, the contraction or "compression" of the universe will generate heat for the same reason as heat is generated by the "contraction" or compression of a gas. But the heat of a contracting gas will generate an expansive force that will oppose the contraction of the gas.
Similarly, the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will cause an expansive force that will oppose gravitationally forces that are causing the universe to contact.
The velocity of contraction will increase until the momentum of the galaxies, planets, and the continuous non-quantized mass components of the universe equals the expansive forces generated by the heat caused by its contraction.
At this point in time the total energy of the universe would be equal to the total mass equivalent of that energy or E=mc^2, where "E" equals the total energy content of the universe and "m" equals the total mass content of the universe. From this point on the velocity of the contraction will slow and be maintained by the momentum associated with the remaining mass component of the universe.
However, after a certain point in time the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will become great enough to convert the mass of the stars planets and the continuous non-quantized form of mass to EM radiation. This will reduce the total mass of the universe and the total attractive gravitational forces associated with that mass.
This will result in the universe entering an expansive phase because the expansive forces associated with the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will exceed the contractive forces associated with the remaining mass of the universe.
Earlier it was shown that the interaction of EM radiation with the continuous non-quantized form of mass results in increasing the quantity of a continuous non-quantized mass contained in the volume of space where the interaction occurred.
Therefore, the quantity of a continuous non-quantized form of mass in the universe will increase as its expansion progresses.
This expansion will continue until the total gravitational attractive forces of the mass in the universe exceeds the total expansive forces cause by the heat generated by the contraction of the universe.
At this point, the contraction phase will begin again.
Since the universe is a closed system, the amplitude of the expansions and contractions will remain constant because the law of conservation of mass/energy dictates the total mass and energy of a closed system remains constant.
This results in the universe experiencing in a never-ending cycle of expansions and contractions of equal magnitudes.
The Cosmic Background Radiation discovered by Penzias and Wilson supports the assumption that the universe undergoes a cycle of expansion and contractions.
Chapter two showed that particles are formed by interaction of a continuous non-quantized form of mass with the geometry of four *spatial* dimensions. However, the process of particle formation and disassociation can only occur in extremely high temperature environments. As mentioned earlier the heat is generated by the contraction of the universe. This heating would result in the disassociation of particles into a continuous non-quantized form of mass.
However, the process would be reversed as the universe begins to expand because as was shown in Chapter two a portion of a continuous non-quantized mass component of space would "condense" to form particles as it cooled.
The Cosmic Background Radiation with the equivalent temperature of 3 degrees Kelvin can be interpreted as the remnants of the energy that existed at the time when the universe changed over from an energy or heat dominated to one containing both photons, subatomic particles.
Therefore, one could interpret the cosmic background radiation as being the result of the universe changing over from one domain by the heat generated from the contraction of the universe to one containing both photons, subatomic particles due to the cooling caused by its expansion.
The universe's most
powerful enabling tool is not
knowledge or understanding but
imagination
because it extends the reality of
one's environment.""
Copyright 1995 Jeffrey O'Callaghan
