The Standard Cosmological Model of the Universe postulates the universe began as a small compact "ball" of mass that exploded producing a “big bang” and that the universe is expanding due to the aftermath of the "big bang" based, in part, on the frequency shifting of the spectral lines in EM radiation called the red shift.

Many astronomers have interpreted the red shift in EM radiation as an indication the galaxies are moving away from the earth and have calculated the rate of expansion of the universe based on the magnitude of this frequency shift.  They have assumed the frequency shift of EM radiation coming from galaxies is only due to their velocity with respect to the earth.

However, the recent observation that universe contains a measurable quantity of Dark Matter indicates that this assumption may not be valid because it would interact with EM radiation to cause a frequency shift which would not be related to the expansion of the universe.

To understand how Dark Matter or a continuous non-quantized form of mass would affect the rate of expansion of the universe and requires an understanding of how and why an interaction of EM radiation with a continuous non-quantized form of mass effects its propagation

(It should be remember, we do agree with many cosmologists that the universe is presently in an overall state of expansion however, we disagree with the currently accepted rates at which this expansion is occurring and define this expansion not in terms of a "big bang" but in terms of cycle of expansions and contractions in four *spatial* dimension.)

Chapter one postulated the universe is composed of a continuous non-quantized form of mass and four *spatial* dimensions instead of four-dimensional space-time.

Chapter two derived the quantum properties of a photon in terms of the discrete energies associated with a resonant "system" formed in space by oscillations in a continuous non-quantized mass component of space.

Chapter three defined a photon's energy in terms of oscillations in a continuous non-quantized form of mass caused by a matter wave moving on the "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension at the velocity of light. 

Therefore, Chapters two and three define a common mechanism responsible for both the quantum and wave characteristics of a photon and EM radiation because they define both in terms of matter wave in continuous non-quantized form of mass.

(Louis de Broglie was the first to theorize that all particles had a wave component.  His theories were confirmed by the discovery of electron diffraction by crystals in 1927 by Davisson and Germer.  However, this means there must be a continuous non-quantized medium for it to be propagated on because even the smallest possible particle must have a wave component. Therefore, there must exist a continuous non-quantized medium to propagate the wave of the smallest possible particle. However, macroscopic observations of wave energy indicate that it can only be propagated on a medium made up of mass. Therefore, the success of Louis de Broglie theory indicates that a continuous non-quantized form of mass exists.)

These oscillations in a continuous non-quantized form of mass responsible for generating a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension would be analogous to the oscillations associated with a wave on the surface of water.

The trough of a water wave displaces a volume of water below its surface with air while the peak of a water wave displaces the air above the surface of the water with water.

Similarly a "trough" of a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold would displace a continuous non-quantized form of mass "below" a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension with a component of four-dimensional space while a "peak" of a matter wave would displace a "volume" of four-dimensional space above a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with a component of three-dimensional space.

Chapter ten  showed all forms of energy were the result of a displacement in a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension.

Therefore, the sinusoidal displacements in a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by the "peaks" and "troughs" of a matter wave on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension would be responsible of the propagation of EM radiation.

However, a matter wave and water wave would share another similarity in that they would both be effected by the interaction of their wave energy with the mass of the medium they are propagated on.

The frequency of a water wave decreases as it moves along the surface of the water due, in part, to an interaction with the mass of the water.  The greater the distance it travels on the water the greater the decrease in its frequency.

Similarly the frequency of a matter wave would decease as it moved along a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension due to it's interaction with a continuous non-quantized mass component of space.  The greater the distance it travels on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold the greater the decrease in its frequency. 

However, it can be shown using the currently accepted laws of physics that a dissipation of EM energy resulting from a frequency shift due to its interaction with a continuous non-quantized form of mass will cause an increase the quantity of a continuous non-quantized mass component in the volume of space where that energy dissipation occurs.

Chapter two defined the quantum properties of a photon in terms of a closed resonant "system" generated by a matter wave moving on a "surface" of a three-dimensional space manifold with respect to a fourth spatial dimension.

In Chapter three, the “closed *spatial* system” defining the particle properties of a matter wave or photon was derived in terms of a dynamic interaction between a continuous non-quantized form of mass and four "spatial" dimensions.  It define the magnitude of the interactions terms of the equation E=mc^2 where "E" = the magnitude of the energy of the matter wave of a photon, m = the magnitude of a continuous non-quantized form of mass and c = the velocity of light.

According to the law of conservation of mass and energy, the sum of the mass and energy components of a close system must remain constant.

Therefore, due to the law of conservation of mass / energy, the dissipation of the energy of a matter wave due to its interaction with a continuous non-quantized form of mass MUST cause an increase in the quantity of a continuous non-quantized mass component of the space in the volume of space where that dissipation occurred.

However, Chapter two indicated a continuous non-quantized form of mass is responsible for the physical properties associated with spatial volume.

Therefore, the increase in the quantity of a continuous non-quantized form of mass will result in that volume of three-dimensional space physically "expanding" "towards" a fourth *spatial* dimension.

This means that a portion of the observed expansion of the universe associated with the energy loss of red shifted EM radiation may not be due to the recessional velocity of galaxies but instead may be due an increase in the physical volume of three-dimensional space with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension caused by an increase in a continuous non-quantized form of mass.

However, the rate of expansion of the universe due to a conversion the energy of EM radiation to a continuous non-quantized form of mass would be related to the non-linear formula of E=mc^2.

Therefore, if this mechanism does define one of the expansive components of the universe the rate of the expansion would be less than that predicted by many cosmologists because one of the expansive components would be defined by the non-linear formula of E=mc^2 and not by the linear recessional velocity of galaxies.  This would result in a reduction of rate of expansion of the universe predicted by the assumption that the entire energy loss of EM radiation is due to the recessional velocity of galaxies.

However, it should be remember we are not sayng that the universe is not expanding, but we are saying that magnitude of the expansion may be less than predict by many of today’s cosmologists.

This model has been dismissed by many because of an observed time dilation in red shifted photons discussed at the “Errors in Tired EM radiation Cosmology” web page ( http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/tiredlit.htm )

However, the fact that time dilation has been observed in red shifted photons supports the validity of this mechanism instead of refuting it because Chapter three derived the mechanism responsible for the energy loss associated with the red shifting of EM radiation in terms of a "relativistic" foreshortening or time dilation of space.

 Therefore, a time dilation should be observed if this were a valid mechanism.

Additionally, it was pointed out on the "Errors in Tired EM radiation Cosmology" page that the energy loss associated with the red shifting of EM radiation could not be cause by its interaction with particles because no "Compton effect is observed in red shifted photons.

(The "Compton Effect "is the term given to the blurring of distant objects that result from the interaction of EM radiation with particles in the space.)

The reason why many astronomers believe the entire redshift of observed in galaxies is the result of its movement away from an observer is because they assume the only way the wavelength of a photon of EM radiation can be shifted is by its interaction with another particle because classical theory of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic wave, cannot explain any shift in wavelength.

Therefore, they assume because no Compton scattering is observed in red shifted EM energy from a star must be the result of its movement away from us.

However, this paper does not define the energy loss of EM radiation associated with a red shift in terms of an interaction with particles.

Chapter two derived the quantum properties of a photon in terms of the discrete energies associated with a resonant "system" formed in space by matter wave in a continuous non-quantized mass component of space.  Therefore, a portion of red shifting of a photon could be the result of its interaction between a continuous non-quantized form of mass and the matter wave responsible for it particle properties. Therefore it would be possible explain and predict the energy loss of the particle called a photon in terms of classical wave theory.

Presently the universe appears to be in an overall state of expansion with respect to a fourth *spatial* dimension, due to both the recessional velocity of galaxies and the physical expansion of a volume of space caused by a conversion of the energy of EM radiation to a continuous non-quantized form of mass discussed earlier.

However someday this expansion will crease and it will enter a contraction phase.

This is primarily due to the mechanism defined earlier in which EM radiation is converted to continuous non-quantized form of mass.  This will result in increasing in the total mass content of the universe and causing the total gravitational contractive forces associated with that mass to increase as time goes by.

The universe will begin to contract when the contractive forces associated with the increase mass of the universe exceeds the expansive forces associated with recessional velocity of the galaxies.

However, the contraction or "compression" of the universe will generate heat for the same reason as heat is generated by the "contraction" or compression of a gas.  But the heat of a contracting gas will generate an expansive force that will oppose the contraction of the gas.

Similarly, the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will cause an expansive force that will oppose gravitationally forces that are causing the universe to contact.

The velocity of contraction will increase until the momentum of the galaxies, planets, and the continuous non-quantized mass components of the universe equals the expansive forces generated by the heat caused by the contraction of the universe.

At this point in time the total energy of the universe would be equal to the total mass equivalent of that energy or E=mc^2, where "E" equals the total energy content of the universe and "m" equals the total mass content of the universe.  From this point on the velocity of the contraction will slow and be maintained by the momentum associated with the remaining mass component of the universe.

However, after a certain point in time the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will become great enough to convert the mass of the stars planets and the continuous non-quantized form of mass to EM radiation.  This will reduce the total mass of the universe and the total attractive gravitational forces associated with that mass.

This will result in the universe entering an expansive phase because the expansive forces associated with the heat generated by the contraction of the universe will exceed the contractive forces associated with the remaining mass of the universe.

Earlier it was shown that the interaction of EM radiation with the continuous non-quantized form of mass results in increasing the quantity of a continuous non-quantized mass contained in the volume of space where the interaction occurred.

Therefore, the quantity of a continuous non-quantized form of mass in the universe will increase as its expansion progresses.

This expansion will continue until the total gravitational attractive forces of the mass in the universe exceeds the total expansive forces cause by the heat generated by the contraction of the universe.

At this point, the contraction phase will begin again.

Since the universe is a closed system, the amplitude of the expansions and contractions will remain constant because the law of conservation of mass/energy dictates the total mass and energy of a closed system remains constant.

This results in the universe experiencing in a never-ending cycle of expansions and contractions of equal magnitudes.

Particle and star formation would not begin in the expansion phase until space had expanded enough to allow enough of the photons energy to be converted back into the continuous non-quantized form of mass to support their formation.

The Cosmic Background Radiation with the equivalent temperature of 3 degrees Kelvin discovered by Penzias and Wilson with the remnants of the energy that existed at the time when the universe changed over from an energy dominated to one containing both photons, subatomic particles and continuous non-quantized form of mass.  The sudden appearance of these “free” or subatomic particles that resulted from the conversion of a continuous non-quantized energy component of space to a continuous non-quantized form of mass destroyed the thermo equilibrium between the individual photons that had existed before the appearance of particles.  This Comic Background Radiation would appear to be almost a perfect Black Body Curve because at the instant this change over occurred the continuous non-quantized energy and mass components of space would be in thermo equilibrium because they would have been equally distributed throughout the entire volume of the universe.

“The universe's most powerful enabling tool is
not knowledge or understanding
but imagination"
Jeffrey O'Callaghan

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